Posts by Jai Ganesh

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

2445) Polykarp Kusch

Gist:

Work

In certain respects, electrons and atoms behave as if they were rotating charged particles that generate a magnetic field. Their magnetic moment provides a way of measuring how strongly they are affected by a magnetic field. Drawing upon quantum mechanics and relativity theory, Paul Dirac developed a theory for the interaction of charged particles with electromagnetic fields. Through precise measurements, Polykarp Kusch showed in 1947 that the electron’s magnetic moment was somewhat greater than the theory predicted. This became important for the further development of quantum electrodynamics.

Summary

Polykarp Kusch (born Jan. 26, 1911, Blankenburg, Ger.—died March 20, 1993, Dallas, Texas, U.S.) was a German-American physicist who, with Willis E. Lamb, Jr., was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1955 for his accurate determination that the magnetic moment of the electron is greater than its theoretical value, thus leading to reconsideration of and innovations in quantum electrodynamics.

Kusch was brought to the United States in 1912 and became a citizen in 1922. In 1937, at Columbia University, he worked with the physicist Isidor I. Rabi on studies of the effects of magnetic fields on beams of atoms. He spent the wartime years in research on radar and returned to Columbia in 1946 as professor of physics, a position he held until 1972. Among other posts held by Kusch at Columbia were department chairman (1949–52, 1960–63), director of the radiation laboratory (1952–60), and academic vice president and provost (1969–72). In 1972 he took a position as professor at the University of Texas, Dallas, where he remained until his retirement in 1982.

In 1947, through precise atomic beam studies, Kusch demonstrated that the magnetic properties of the electron were not in agreement with existing theories. Subsequently, he made accurate measurements of the magnetic moment of the electron and its behaviour in hydrogen. In work characterized by great accuracy and reliability, he measured numerous atomic, molecular, and nuclear properties by radio-frequency beam techniques.

Details

Polykarp Kusch (January 26, 1911 – March 20, 1993) was a German-American physicist who shared the 1955 Nobel Prize in Physics with Willis Eugene Lamb for his accurate determination that the electron magnetic moment was greater than its theoretical value, thus leading to reconsideration of and innovations in quantum electrodynamics.

Early life and education

Kusch was born in Blankenburg, Germany to John Mathias Kusch, a Lutheran missionary, and his wife, Henrietta van der Haas. In 1912, Kusch and his family had emigrated to the United States, where by 1922 he became a naturalized citizen. After graduating from grade school in the Midwest, Kusch attended Case Institute of Technology in Cleveland, Ohio (now known as Case Western Reserve University), where he majored in physics. After graduating from the Case Western Reserve University with bachelor of science degree in 1931, Kusch joined University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, from where he received his master's degree in 1933. He continued his education at the same alma mater, studying for his Ph.D. under mentorship from F. Wheeler Loomis and after defending his thesis titled "The Molecular Spectrum of Caesium and Rubidium", graduated from it in 1936. In 1935, prior to moving to the University of Minnesota, Kusch married his girlfriend, Edith Starr McRoberts. Together, they had three daughters.

Career

Kusch then moved to New York City, where from 1937 and until his departure for the newly founded University of Texas at Dallas, he spent much of his career as a professor at Columbia University, and served as the university's provost for several years. He worked on molecular beam resonance studies under I. I. Rabi, then discovered the electron anomalous magnetic moment. Many measurements of magnetic moments and hyperfine structure followed. He expanded into chemical physics and continued to publish research on molecular beams. During his tenure at Columbia, he was the doctoral supervisor for Gordon Gould, the inventor of the laser.

Kusch was a fellow of the American Physical Society since 1940 and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences since 1959. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1956. In 1967, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.

Kusch's wife Edith died in 1959, and in the following year he married Betty Pezzoni. They had two daughters. Kusch House, a residential dormitory for undergraduate students at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio on the South Campus, is named after Kusch. It is located on Carlton Road in Cleveland Heights. The University of Texas at Dallas has a Polykarp Kusch Auditorium with a plaque.

Kusch died on March 20, 1993, aged 82. His widow Betty died in 2003, aged 77.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2508) Firefly

Gist

Light production in fireflies is due to the chemical process of bioluminescence. This occurs in specialized light-emitting organs (known as photophores), usually located on a female firefly's lower abdomen.

Summary

The Lampyridae are a family of elateroid beetles with more than 2,400 described species, many of which are light-emitting. They are soft-bodied beetles commonly called fireflies, lightning bugs, starflies or glowworms for their conspicuous production of light, mainly during twilight, to attract mates. The type species is Lampyris noctiluca, the common glow-worm of Europe. Light production in the Lampyridae is thought to have originated as a warning signal that the larvae were distasteful. This ability to create light was then co-opted as a mating signal and, in a further development, adult female fireflies of the genus Photuris mimic the flash pattern of the Photinus beetle to trap their males as prey.

Fireflies are found in temperate and tropical climates. Many live in marshes or in wet, wooded areas where their larvae have abundant sources of food. Although all fireflies nominally glow as larvae, only some species produce light in their adult stage, and the location of the light organ varies among species and between sexes of the same species. Fireflies have attracted human attention since classical antiquity; their presence has been taken to signify a wide variety of conditions in different cultures and is especially appreciated aesthetically in Japan, where parks are set aside for this specific purpose.

Firefly, (family Lampyridae) is a family of some 2,000 species of beetles (insect order Coleoptera) found in most tropical and temperate regions that have special light-producing organs on the underside of the abdomen. Most fireflies are nocturnal, although some species are diurnal. They are soft-bodied beetles that range from 5 to 25 mm (up to 1 inch) in length. The flattened, dark brown or black body is often marked with orange or yellow.

Some adult fireflies do not eat, whereas many feed on pollen and nectar. In a few species females are predatory on males of other firefly species. Both sexes are usually winged and luminous, although in some species only one sex has the light-producing organ. Females lacking wings and resembling the long, flat larvae are commonly referred to as glowworms. The larvae are sometimes luminescent before they hatch. Larvae live on the ground and feed on snails and slugs by injecting a fluid into their prey and then withdrawing the partly digested matter through hollow mouthparts. The common glowworm (Lampyris noctiluca) is a member of this family.

Most fireflies produce short, rhythmic flashes in a pattern characteristic of the species. The rhythmic flash pattern is part of a signal system that brings the sexes together. Both the rate of flashing and the amount of time before the female’s response to the male are important. Some authorities feel that the flashing is also a protective mechanism, reminding predators of the firefly’s bitter taste. However, some frogs eat such large numbers of fireflies that they themselves glow.

Firefly light is produced under nervous control within special cells (photocytes) richly supplied with air tubes (tracheae). Firefly light is a cold light with approximately 100 percent of the energy given off as light and only a minute amount of heat. Only light in the visible spectrum is emitted. Some tropical members of the coleopteran family Elateridae are also called fireflies.

The emitted light (due to a chemical process known as bioluminescence) of such organisms as fireflies, various marine organisms (see marine bioluminescence), and a number of algae, fungi, and bacteria is based on the oxidation of any of several organic molecules known as luciferins. The luciferins are broken down by the enzyme luciferase and react with the energy molecule ATP and oxygen, resulting in a glowing light.

Details

It’s a quiet, warm summer evening with no human in sight for miles in the woods. As the sun sets, tiny flashes of light start to flicker throughout the trees. At first there’s just a few, but soon hundreds of blinking lights are floating in the forest. Fireflies have come out for the evening.

Flying Beetles

Also known as lightning bugs, fireflies are beetles. Most fireflies are winged. That’s different from other light-producing insects of the same family, called glowworms. (Animals that produce light are called luminescent.)

There are about 2,000 firefly species. These insects often live in humid regions of Asia and the Americas, where they mostly feast on plant pollen and nectar. Firefly larvae—recently hatched worm-like fireflies that haven’t fully developed yet (including their wings)—feed on worms, snails, and insects.

You Glow, Guys!

Fireflies mostly use their light to “talk” to other fireflies and find a mate. They have special organs under their abdomens that take in oxygen. Inside special cells, they combine the oxygen with a substance called luciferin to make light with almost no heat. They use this light, called bioluminescence, to light up the ends of their abdomen.

Each firefly species has its own unique flashing pattern. When a male firefly wants to communicate with a female firefly, he flies near the ground while he flashes his light every six seconds. Once he’s near the ground, a female can more easily tell if he’s from the same species as she is. (Most female fireflies can’t fly.) She answers his flashes by turning on her lights. Then the male finds her.

Predators, such as birds or toads, get a different message from these lights. Although they can easily spot fireflies by their glow, they rarely eat them. That’s because fireflies release drops of toxic, foul-tasting blood. Their flashing is a warning light to predators to stay away.

Lights Out?

Fireflies aren’t endangered, but scientists are worried about them. In recent years, fewer of the insects have been spotted during the summer. Pesticide use and loss of habitat have likely impacted the population, as has light pollution. Too much nighttime light can be harmful to wildlife, affecting their migration patterns and hunting abilities. For fireflies, light pollution interferes with their attempts to signal each other.

Scientists aren’t sure how much the firefly population has dropped since their small size makes them hard to tag and track. Plus an adult firefly's life span is just one to three weeks, which makes counting them difficult. Scientists are working on ways to better track and protect these insects.

Additional Information

Scientifically, fireflies are classified under Lampyridae, a family of insects within the beetle order Coleoptera, or winged beetles. There are estimated to be 2000+ firefly species spread across temperate and tropical zones all over the world.

Hear the word firefly or lightningbug, and what comes to mind? Warm summer nights? Flickering lights in the encroaching dark? Maybe soft grass underfoot, with children running about? Few species ignite such warm feelings of nostalgia as fireflies. These beacons of light are some of our most beloved insects, and no wonder. Their bioluminescence fills us with awe. Their very presence feels magical. Their light has inspired artwork, literature, dance, and music. Beyond their immense cultural value, they have played critical roles in scientific research and medicine, and they are integral components of healthy, thriving ecosystems.

Fireflies are cherished, but they are also declining. Anecdotal reports from around the globe describe fewer individuals being seen each year. And while long-term monitoring studies are scarce, some of the data we have are concerning. For example, based on assessments published on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, one in three assessed North American fireflies may be at risk of extinction. Researchers found that 14% of the assessed species were categorized as threatened, but this number may be much higher since nearly half of the assessed species are data deficient. There is an urgent need to study firefly populations more closely to fully understand their plight and ensure conservation efforts are effective.

Introduction

In many places the insects called fireflies are a familiar sight on summer nights. They are noticeable because they can produce flashes of light. Fireflies belong to the beetle family. They are also called lightning bugs.

Where Fireflies Live

There are about 2,000 species, or types, of firefly. They live in tropical and mild parts of the world. They generally like warm, humid areas, but some live in dry places.

Fireflies retire into the ground during the day. At night, they tend to flock to dark, open areas where their lights can be the most noticeable. The best time to see them is in the later evening hours on dry summer nights.

Physical Features

Adult fireflies range in size from 0.2 to 1 inch (5 to 25 millimeters) long. They have a soft, flattened body that is dark brown or black, sometimes with orange or yellow marks. Males have wings and are good fliers. Females either have short wings or no wings. The females without wings are often called glowworms. Young fireflies, which also have no wings, are also called glowworms.

Behavior

Fireflies produce light with special organs, or body parts, on the underside of the body. These organs make light by mixing chemicals with oxygen from the air. Fireflies make a certain series of flashes to attract a mate. When a possible mate sees the flashes, it returns the signal.

Life Cycle

Females die soon after laying eggs, which hatch into larvae within a few weeks. It takes larvae one or two summers to grow into adults. Larvae can glow, but much more faintly than adults and only for a few seconds at a time. Larvae eat tiny snails and slugs, but adult fireflies may not eat.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: What did the Bacon say to the Tomato?
A: Lettuce get together!
* * *
Q: What water yields the most beautiful lettuce heads?
A: Perspiration!
* * *
Q: What is a Honeymoon Salad?
A: Lettuce alone, with no dressing!
* * *
Q: What did the vegetables say to the Salad Dressing?
A: Lettuce all smile.
* * *
Q: What did the host of Top Chef say to the contestants?
A: Lettuce begin.
* * *
Q: What do you do with epileptic lettuce?
A: You make a seizure salad!
* * *

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Come Quotes - XVII

1. 'Obama and Biden want to raise taxes by a trillion dollars.' Guess what? Yes, we do in one regard: We want to let that trillion dollar tax cut expire so the middle class doesn't have to bear the burden of all that money going to the super-wealthy. That's not a tax raise. That's called fairness where I come from. - Joe Biden

2. The time has come for us to draw the line. The time has come for the responsible leaders of both political parties to take a stand against overgrown Government and for the American taxpayer. - Richard M. Nixon

3. I have found out one thing and that is, if you have an idea, and it is a good idea, if you only stick to it you will come out all right. - Cecil Rhodes

4. This is my 20th year in the sport. I've known swimming and that's it. I don't want to swim past age 30; if I continue after this Olympics, and come back in 2016, I'll be 31. I'm looking forward to being able to see the other side of the fence. - Michael Phelps

5. You that would judge me, do not judge alone this book or that, come to this hallowed place where my friends' portraits hang and look thereon; Ireland's history in their lineaments trace; think where man's glory most begins and ends and say my glory was I had such friends. - William Butler Yeats

6. Come, gentlemen, I hope we shall drink down all unkindness. - William Shakespeare

7. We meet aliens every day who have something to give us. They come in the form of people with different opinions. - William Shatner

8. Doing is the great thing, for if people resolutely do what is right, they come in time to like doing it. - John Ruskin.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

Thermopile

Gist

A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy (voltage) using multiple thermocouples connected in series. By stacking thermocouples, it increases voltage output and sensitivity, allowing it to detect small infrared radiation changes or measure temperature differences. Common uses include contactless IR thermometers, gas fireplace flame safety sensors, and thermal energy harvesting.

Thermopiles are used for contactless temperature sensing. The function of a thermopile is to transfer the heat radiation emitted from the object to a voltage output. The output is in the range of tens or hundreds of millivolts. Thermopiles work as sensors or generators.

Summary

Details

A thermopile or a thermoelectric pile is a device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy. It is composed of several thermocouples connected usually in series or, less commonly, in parallel. Such a device works on the principle of the thermoelectric effect, i.e., generating a voltage when its dissimilar metals (thermocouples) are exposed to a temperature difference.

Operation

Thermocouples operate by measuring the temperature differential from their junction point to the point in which the thermocouple output voltage is measured. Once a closed circuit is made up of more than one metal and there is a difference in temperature between junctions and points of transition from one metal to another, a current is produced as if generated by a difference of potential between the hot and cold junction.

A thermopile usually consists of multiple thermocouples connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel, with junctions distributed between two isothermal regions. Each thermocouple produces a small voltage proportional to the temperature difference between its hot and cold junctions. By connecting many thermocouples, the voltages are summed, yielding an output that scales with both the temperature gradient and the number of junctions. Owing to their passive operation, thermopiles are widely used in non-contact infrared thermometry, energy harvesting, and process monitoring applications.

Thermopiles do not respond to absolute temperature, but generate an output voltage proportional to a local temperature difference or temperature gradient. The amount of voltage and power are very small and they are measured in milli-watts and milli-volts using controlled devices that are specifically designed for such purpose.

Applications

Thermopiles are used to provide an output in response to temperature as part of a temperature measuring device, such as the infrared thermometers widely used by medical professionals to measure body temperature, or in thermal accelerometers to measure the temperature profile inside the sealed cavity of the sensor. They are also used in heat flux sensors and pyrheliometers and gas burner safety controls. The output of a thermopile is usually in the range of tens or hundreds of millivolts. As well as increasing the signal level, the device may be used to provide spatial temperature averaging.

Thermopiles are also used to generate electrical energy from, for instance, heat from electrical components, solar wind, radioactive materials, laser radiation or combustion. The process is also an example of the Peltier effect (electric current transferring heat energy) as the process transfers heat from the hot to the cold junctions.

There are also the so-called thermopile sensors, which are power meters based on the principle that the optical or laser power is converted to heat and the resulting increase in temperature is measured by a thermopile.

Additional Information:

Thermopiles work as sensors or generators.

As a sensor, the thermopile is used to determine a relatively low temperature (compared with normal thermocouple operations). Applications for thermopile sensors include appliances such as microwave ovens, clothes driers, medical devices, automotive (car climate control, seat occupancy, blind spot alert, black ice detection), consumer products (printers, copiers, mobile phones) and many other applications.

A thermopile generator generates electrical energy from heat. A typical application is flame failure. In a gas water heater, gas fireplace or gas stove a thermopile generator produces voltage while a pilot light is lit. Once the pilot light is extinguished, the voltage drop triggers a valve shutting off gas supply to the appliance.

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Liver Function Test

Gist

Liver function tests (LFTs) are blood tests that measure enzymes, proteins, and substances produced or processed by the liver to assess its overall health, screen for infections (hepatitis), and monitor damage or disease. They commonly measure ALT, AST, ALP, bilirubin, and albumin. Elevated levels often indicate liver inflammation, damage, or bile duct issues.

Liver function tests (also called a liver panel) use a sample of your blood to measure several substances made by your liver.

The most common liver function tests measure:

* Albumin, a protein made in the liver.
* Total protein. This test measures the total amount of protein in your blood, which includes albumin and globulins. These proteins are mainly made in your liver.
* ALP (alkaline phosphatase), ALT (alanine transaminase), AST (aspartate aminotransferase), and GGT (gamma-glutamyl transferase). These are enzymes that are mainly made in your liver. Enzymes are proteins that speed up certain chemical reactions in your body.
* Bilirubin, a waste product your body makes when it breaks down old red blood cells. Your liver removes most of the bilirubin from your body.
* Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), an enzyme found in most of the tissues in your body, but some of the largest amounts are found in your liver.
* Prothrombin time (PT), how long it takes your blood to clot. Prothrombin is a protein involved in blood clotting. It's made in your liver.

Some of these tests can show how well your liver is working and others can show whether your liver may be damaged by liver disease or injury. But liver function tests alone usually can't diagnose specific diseases. So, if your results are abnormal, you'll usually need other tests to find the exact cause.

Summary

Liver function tests are blood tests used to help find the cause of your symptoms and monitor liver disease or damage. The tests measure the levels of certain enzymes and proteins in your blood.

Some of these tests measure how well the liver is performing its regular functions of producing protein and clearing bilirubin, a blood waste product. Other liver function tests measure enzymes that liver cells release in response to damage or disease.

Irregular liver function test results don't always mean liver disease. A member of your health care team will typically explain your results and what they mean.

Why it's done

Liver function tests can be used to:

* Screen for liver infections, such as hepatitis.
* Monitor a disease, such as viral or alcoholic hepatitis, and determine how well a treatment is working.
* Look for signs of serious disease, particularly scarring of the liver, called cirrhosis.
* Monitor possible side effects of medicines.

Liver function tests check the levels of certain enzymes and proteins in your blood. Levels that are higher or lower than usual can mean liver problems. The pattern and degree of elevation of these tests along with the overall clinical picture can provide hints to the underlying cause of these problems.

Some common liver function tests include:

* Alanine transaminase (ALT). ALT is an enzyme found in the liver that helps convert proteins into energy for the liver cells. When the liver is damaged, ALT is released into the bloodstream and levels increase. This test is sometimes referred to as SGPT.
* Aspartate transaminase (AST). AST is an enzyme that helps the body break down amino acids. Like ALT, AST is usually present in blood at low levels. An increase in AST levels may mean liver damage, liver disease or muscle damage. This test is sometimes referred to as SGOT.
* Alkaline phosphatase (ALP). ALP is an enzyme found in the liver and bone and is important for breaking down proteins. Higher-than-usual levels of ALP may mean liver damage or disease, such as a blocked bile duct, or certain bone diseases, as this enzyme is also present in bones.
* Albumin and total protein. Albumin is one of several proteins made in the liver. Your body needs these proteins to fight infections and to perform other functions. Lower-than-usual levels of albumin and total protein may mean liver damage or disease. These low levels also can be seen in other gastrointestinal and kidney-related conditions.
* Bilirubin. Bilirubin is a substance produced during the breakdown of red blood cells. Bilirubin passes through the liver and is excreted in stool. Higher levels of bilirubin might mean liver damage or disease. At times, conditions such as a blockage of the liver ducts or certain types of anemia also can lead to elevated bilirubin.
* Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT). GGT is an enzyme in the blood. Higher-than-usual levels may mean liver or bile duct damage. This test is nonspecific and may be elevated in conditions other than liver disease.
* L-lactate dehydrogenase (LD). LD is an enzyme found in the liver. Higher levels may mean liver damage. However, other conditions also may cause higher levels of LD.
* Prothrombin time (PT). PT is the time it takes your blood to clot. Increased PT may mean liver damage. However, it also can be higher if you're taking certain blood-thinning drugs, such as warfarin.

Details

Liver function tests are blood tests that measure different substances produced by your liver, including proteins, enzymes and bilirubin. High or low levels of different substances can indicate different diseases.

Overview:

What are liver function tests?

Liver function tests are blood tests that measure different substances produced by your liver. These measurements give your healthcare provider important information about the overall health of your liver and how well it’s working. A liver panel will often measure several substances in one blood sample. It may include various enzymes, proteins and byproducts.

What are the five primary liver function tests?

The most common liver tests include:

* Liver enzymes test. Your liver enzymes include alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and gamma-glutamyl transferase * (GGT). These are elevated when there’s liver injury.
* Total protein test.A total protein test measures levels of protein in your blood. Your liver makes protein, and low protein levels may indicate that your liver isn’t functioning optimally.
* Bilirubin test. Bilirubin is a waste product that your liver deposits in bile.
* LDH test. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme found in many of your body’s tissues, including your liver.
* Prothrombin Time (PT) test. This test measures how long it takes for a sample of your blood to clot, a process that involves proteins that your liver produces.

These tests are all part of a routine blood panel called a comprehensive metabolic panel.

When are tests done to check liver function?

Your healthcare provider might want to check these values to screen you for possible hepatitis or other liver diseases. If they already know that you have liver disease, they might want to check how it’s progressing or whether a treatment is working. You may also have a liver test to monitor the side effects of certain medications that are known to affect your liver.

What kinds of things can a liver panel tell you?

Different values and ratios of different substances may tell your healthcare provider:

* If you have liver inflammation (hepatitis).
* Whether the inflammation is alcohol-related or nonalcoholic (metabolic).
* Whether you have a problem in your liver itself or in your bile ducts.
* If your liver function is impaired, and if so, how much.
* If your bile flow is impaired, and if so, how much.
* Whether your medications are affecting your liver, and if so, how much.

Test Details:

How do liver function tests work?

A healthcare provider draws a small amount of blood from a vein in your arm to test in the lab. They’ll look for abnormally high or low levels of different substances. Often, they’ll want to compare levels of different enzymes or proteins to each other. If the balance is off, that can help them understand better what may be going on in your liver.

What happens during the test?

You may have the test at a hospital or a specialized testing facility. Your healthcare technician will locate the vein in your arm that they’ll use to draw blood from and then clean the site. They may wrap your arm with a compression band to make your veins stick out. They’ll insert a small needle into your vein and draw blood into a vial. It only takes a few minutes.

What happens after?

Your technician will send your blood sample to a lab for analysis. The lab may be in the same facility or a different one. This may determine how fast your results come back. It may be a few hours or a few days. As long as you aren’t feeling lightheaded from the blood draw, you can go home now, resume your medications and have something to eat and drink.

Additional Information

* Liver function tests (LFTs) are blood tests that check how well your liver is working.
* They measure proteins, enzymes and other substances in your blood.
* LFTs can help find liver disease and liver problems, check their severity and monitor treatment.
* If your test results are abnormal, your doctor may recommend more tests.

Discuss the results of your LFT blood test with your doctor to understand what they mean for you.

What are liver function tests?

Liver function tests (LFTs) are common blood tests that check how well your liver is working. They measure different proteins, enzymes and other substances in your blood.

These tests help:

* find liver disease and liver problems
* check how severe any problems are
* track how well treatment is working

Your liver is a large organ in your abdomen. It helps your body by filtering harmful substances and breaking down medicines and alcohol. It also supports digestion, makes bile and produces important proteins and enzymes.

Liver function tests are also called hepatic function tests.

Different liver function tests

There are several liver function tests, including:

* alanine aminotransferase (ALT) — an enzyme that shows liver cell health
* albumin — a protein made by the liver that helps regulate fluids
* alkaline phosphatase (ALP) — an enzyme linked to bile flow and bone health, as well as made by the placenta during pregnancy
* aspartate aminotransferase (AST) — an enzyme that can indicate liver damage
* bilirubin — a substance that reflects bile production and excretion
* gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) — an enzyme that can indicate liver stress
* total protein — the total amount of proteins in the blood, including albumin and globulins

What are proteins and enzymes?

Proteins are important building blocks in your body. Some proteins, such as albumin and globulins, help move nutrients, fight infections and balance fluids.

Enzymes are special proteins that speed up chemical reactions in your body. Liver enzymes, such as ALT and AST help break down substances and can show if your liver is damaged.

When are liver function tests used?

Your doctor may refer you for liver function tests to check for liver problems and monitor your liver health, especially if you:

* have or may have a liver condition or liver disease
* have or may have cirrhosis of the liver
* have or may have a hepatitis virus infection
* have signs of a biliary obstruction — a blockage in the bile ducts that stops bile from draining properly into your gut
* drink a lot of alcohol
* have a family history of liver disease
* take medicines that can affect your liver function

Your doctor might refer you for LFTs if you have symptoms such as:

* jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes)
* dark urine (wee) or light-coloured faeces (math)
* nausea and vomiting
* abdominal (tummy) pain or swelling
* itching

Where can I get a liver function test?

You usually need to go to a pathology collection centre with a referral from your doctor. Your doctor will recommend one near you.

Sometimes, your doctor will collect blood for testing in their clinic. Blood tests are also routinely done in hospitals.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#10773. What does the term in Geography Degree (angle) mean?

#10774. What does the term in Geography Degree day mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#5969. What does the noun presumption mean?

#5970. What does the noun pretext mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#2581. What does the medical term Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#6360.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#9867.

Jai Ganesh · Exercises

Hi,

2721.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: What's Tiger Woods favorite brand of potato chips?
A: Lays.
* * *
Q: Why did the Oreo go to the dentist?
A: Because it lost its filling.
* * *
There are two types of people in this world: People who love pizza and liars.
* * *
Why do we cook bacon and bake cookies?
* * *
What's the best part of Valentines Day?
The day after when all the chocolate goes on sale.
* * *
Knock Knock.
Who's There?
Queso!
Queso who?
Queso mistaken identity.
* * *

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2507) Swallow

Gist

A swallow is a small, agile bird from the family Hirundinidae, known for its aerial acrobatics, glossy blue-black backs, red throats, and long forked tails with streamers, spending most of its time catching insects in flight, building mud nests, and migrating long distances to warmer climates for winter.

Unlike Swifts, Swallows rarely venture into towns, preferring open countryside where flying insects are plentiful. They can often be seen around open water too. As autumn approaches, large groups of Swallows often congregate on overhead wires and in reedbeds before heading south, back to Africa.

Summary

Swallow is any of the approximately 90 species of the bird family Hirundinidae (order Passeriformes). A few, including the bank swallow, are called martins (see martin; see also woodswallow; for sea swallow, see tern). Swallows are small, with pointed narrow wings, short bills, and small weak feet; some species have forked tails. Plumage may be plain or marked with metallic blue or green; the sexes look alike in most species.

Swallows spend much time in the air, capturing insects; they are among the most agile of passerine birds. For nesting, swallows may use a hole or cranny in a tree, burrow into a sandbank, or plaster mud onto a wall or ledge to house three to seven white, sometimes speckled, eggs.

Swallows occur worldwide except in the coldest regions and remotest islands. Temperate-zone species include long-distance migrants. The common swallow (Hirundo rustica) is almost worldwide in migration; an American species, called barn swallow, may summer in Canada and winter in Argentina. The 10 species of Petrochelidon, which make flask-shaped mud nests, include the cliff swallow (P. pyrrhonota), the bird of San Juan Capistrano Mission, in California; as with other swallows, it has strong homing instincts.

Details

The swallows, martins, and saw-wings, or Hirundinidae, are a family of passerine songbirds found around the world on all continents, including occasionally in Antarctica. Highly adapted to aerial feeding, they have a distinctive appearance. The term "swallow" is used as the common name for Hirundo rustica in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Around 90 species of Hirundinidae are known, divided into 21 genera, with the greatest diversity found in Africa, which is also thought to be where they evolved as hole-nesters. They also occur on a number of oceanic islands. A number of European and North American species are long-distance migrants; by contrast, the West and South African swallows are nonmigratory.

This family comprises two subfamilies: Pseudochelidoninae (the river martins of the genus Pseudochelidon) and Hirundininae (all other swallows, martins, and saw-wings). In the Old World, the name "martin" tends to be used for the squarer-tailed species, and the name "swallow" for the more fork-tailed species; however, this distinction does not represent a real evolutionary separation. In the New World, "martin" is reserved for members of the genus Progne. (These two systems are responsible for the same species being called sand martin in the Old World and bank swallow in the New World.)

Taxonomy and systematics

The family Hirundinidae was introduced (as Hirundia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. The Hirundinidae are morphologically unique within the passerines, with molecular evidence placing them as a distinctive lineage within the Sylvioidea (Old World warblers and relatives). Phylogenetic analysis has shown that the family Hirundinidae is sister to the cupwings in the family Pnoepygidae. The two families diverged in the early Miocene around 22 million years ago.

Within the family, a clear division exists between the two subfamilies, the Pseudochelidoninae, which are composed of the two species of river martins, and the Hirundininae, into which the remaining species are placed. The division of the Hirundininae has been the source of much discussion, with various taxonomists variously splitting them into as many as 24 genera and lumping them into just 12. Some agreement exists that three core groups occur within the Hirundininae: the saw-wings of the genus Psalidoprocne, the core martins, and the swallows of the genus Hirundo and their allies. The saw-wings are the most basal of the three, with the other two clades being sister to each other. The phylogeny of the swallows is closely related to evolution of nest construction; the more basal saw-wings use burrows as nest, the core martins have both burrowing (in the Old World members) and cavity adoption (in New World members) as strategies, and the genus Hirundo and its allies use mud nests.

Fossil record

The oldest known fossil swallow is Miochelidon eschata from the Early Miocene of Siberia; it is the only record of Hirundinidae from the Miocene. It is likely a basal member of the family.

Description

The Hirundinidae have an evolutionarily conservative body shape, which is similar across the clade, but is unlike that of other passerines. Swallows have adapted to hunting insects on the wing by developing a slender, streamlined body and long, pointed wings, which allow great maneuverability and endurance, as well as frequent periods of gliding. Their body shapes allow for very efficient flight; the metabolic rate of swallows in flight is 49–72% lower than equivalent passerines of the same size.

Swallows have two foveae in each eye, giving them sharp lateral and frontal vision to help track prey. They also have relatively long eyes, with their length almost equaling their width. The long eyes allow for an increase in visual acuity without competing with the brain for space inside of the head. The morphology of the eye in swallows is similar to that of a raptor.

Like the unrelated swifts and nightjars, which hunt in a similar way, they have short bills, but strong jaws and a wide gape. Their body lengths range from about 10–24 cm (3.9–9.4 in) and their weight from about 10–60 g (0.35–2.12 oz). The smallest species by weight may be the Fanti sawwing, at a mean body mass of 9.4 g (0.33 oz) while the purple martin and southern martin, which both weigh in excess of 50 g (1.8 oz) on average, rival one another as the heaviest swallows. The wings are long, pointed, and have nine primary feathers. The tail has 12 feathers and may be deeply forked, somewhat indented, or square-ended. A long tail increases maneuverability, and may also function as a sexual adornment, since the tail is frequently longer in males. In barn swallows, the tail of the male is 18% longer than those of the female, and females select mates on the basis of tail length.

Their legs are short, and their feet are adapted for perching rather than walking, as the front toes are partially joined at the base. Swallows are capable of walking and even running, but they do so with a shuffling, waddling gait. The leg muscles of the river martins (Pseudochelidon) are stronger and more robust than those of other swallows. The river martins have other characteristics that separate them from the other swallows. The structure of the syrinx is substantially different between the two subfamilies; and in most swallows, the bill, legs, and feet are dark brown or black, but in the river martins, the bill is orange-red and the legs and feet are pink.

The most common hirundine plumage is glossy dark blue or green above and plain or streaked underparts, often white or rufous. Species that burrow or live in dry or mountainous areas are often matte brown above (e.g. sand martin and crag martin). The sexes show limited or no sexual dimorphism, with longer outer tail feathers in the adult male probably being the most common distinction.

The chicks hatch naked and with closed eyes. Fledged juveniles usually appear as duller versions of the adult.

Additional Information:

About

The swallow, or 'barn swallow', is a common summer visitor, arriving in April and leaving in October. It builds mud and straw nests on ledges, often in farm buildings and outhouses, or under the eaves of houses. Swallows are widespread and common birds of farmland and open pasture near water. They are agile fliers, feeding on flying insects while on the wing. Before they migrate back to their wintering grounds in Africa, they can be seen gathering to roost in wetlands, particularly reedbeds.

How to identify

The swallow is a glossy, dark blue-black above and white below, with a dark red forehead and throat, and a black band across its chest. It has a very long, forked tail. Often spotted perching on wires in small numbers.

Distribution

Widespread.

Did you know?

Until the 19th century, people thought that the swallow hibernated over winter. Of course, we now know that it migrates to South Africa from the UK, undertaking a perilous journey, during which it is vulnerable to starvation and stormy weather.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Come Quotes - XVI

1. Pennies do not come from heaven. They have to be earned here on earth. - Margaret Thatcher

2. To explain all nature is too difficult a task for any one man or even for any one age. 'Tis much better to do a little with certainty & leave the rest for others that come after you. - Isaac Newton

3. Public education is our greatest pathway to opportunity in America. So we need to invest in and strengthen our public universities today, and for generations to come. - Michelle Obama

4. There is always the danger that we may just do the work for the sake of the work. This is where the respect and the love and the devotion come in - that we do it to God, to Christ, and that's why we try to do it as beautifully as possible. - Mother Teresa

5. The artist is a receptacle for emotions that come from all over the place: from the sky, from the earth, from a scrap of paper, from a passing shape, from a spider's web. - Pablo Picasso

6. The devil ain't got no power over me. The devil come, and me shake hands with the devil. Devil have his part to play. Devil's a good friend, too... because when you don't know him, that's the time he can mosh you down. - Bob Marley

7. All treaties between great states cease to be binding when they come in conflict with the struggle for existence. - Otto von Bismarck

8. I have become my own version of an optimist. If I can't make it through one door, I'll go through another door - or I'll make a door. Something terrific will come no matter how dark the present. - Rabindranath Tagore.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

2444) Willis Lamb

Gist:

Work

According to Niels Bohr’s atomic model, a photon is emitted when an electron descends to a lower energy level. This results in a spectrum with lines corresponding to the different energy levels of different atoms. It appeared that the lines were divided into several lines close to one another, which Paul Dirac tried to explain in a theory. However, in 1947 Willis Lamb used precise measurements to establish what became known as the Lamb shift: what ought to have been a single energy level in the hydrogen atom according to Dirac’s theory actually was two nearby levels with a small difference in energy.

Summary

Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr. (born July 12, 1913, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.—died May 15, 2008, Tucson, Ariz.) was an American physicist and corecipient, with Polykarp Kusch, of the 1955 Nobel Prize for Physics for experimental work that spurred refinements in the quantum theories of electromagnetic phenomena.

Lamb joined the faculty of Columbia University, New York City, in 1938 and worked in the Radiation Laboratory there during World War II. Though the quantum mechanics of P.A.M. Dirac had predicted the hyperfine structure of the lines that appear in the spectrum (dispersed light, as by a prism), Lamb applied new methods to measure the lines and in 1947 found their positions to be slightly different from what had been predicted. While a professor of physics (1951–56) at Stanford University, California, Lamb devised microwave techniques for examining the hyperfine structure of the spectral lines of helium. He was a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Oxford until 1962, when he was appointed a professor of physics at Yale University. In 1974 he became a professor of physics and optical sciences at the University of Arizona; he retired as professor emeritus in 2002.

Details

Willis Eugene Lamb Jr. (July 12, 1913 – May 15, 2008) was an American physicist who shared the 1955 Nobel Prize in Physics with Polykarp Kusch "for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum". Lamb was able to precisely determine a surprising shift in electron energies in a hydrogen atom, known as the Lamb shift. He was a professor at the University of Arizona College of Optical Sciences.

Biography

Lamb was born in Los Angeles, California, and attended Los Angeles High School. First admitted in 1930, he received a Bachelor of Science in chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley in 1934. For theoretical work on scattering of neutrons by a crystal, guided by J. Robert Oppenheimer, he received the Ph.D. in physics in 1938. Because of limited computational methods available at the time, this research narrowly missed revealing the Mössbauer Effect, 19 years before its recognition by Rudolf Mössbauer. He worked on nuclear theory, laser physics, and verifying quantum mechanics.

Lamb was a physics professor at Stanford from 1951 to 1956. He was the Wykeham Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford from 1956 to 1962, and also taught at Yale, Columbia and the University of Arizona. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963. In 2000, The Optical Society elected him an Honorary member.

Lamb is remembered as a "rare theorist turned experimentalist" by D. Kaiser.

Quantum physics

In addition to his crucial and famous contribution to quantum electrodynamics via the Lamb shift, in the latter part of his career he paid increasing attention to the field of quantum measurements. In one of his writings Lamb stated that "most people who use quantum mechanics have little need to know much about the interpretation of the subject." Lamb was also openly critical of many of the interpretational trends on quantum mechanics and of the use of the term photon.

Personal

In 1939 Lamb married his first wife, Ursula Schäfer, a German student, who became a distinguished historian of Latin America (and assumed his last name). After her death in 1996, he married physicist Bruria Kaufman in 1996, whom he later divorced. In 2008 he married Elsie Wattson.

Lamb died on May 15, 2008, at the age of 94, due to complications of a gallstone disorder.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

Gist

Cardiac catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure where a thin, flexible tube (catheter) is inserted into a blood vessel in the groin, arm, or neck and guided to the heart to diagnose or treat conditions like clogged arteries, valve issues, or arrhythmia. It allows doctors to measure pressures, take samples, perform angioplasty, and place stents.

In cardiac catheterization (or cath), your healthcare provider puts a very small, flexible, hollow tube (catheter) into a blood vessel in the groin, arm, wrist, or in rare cases the neck. Then your provider threads it through the blood vessel into the aorta and into the heart.

Summary

Cardiac catheterization, also known as cardiac cath or heart catheterization, is a medical procedure used to diagnose and treat some heart conditions. It lets doctors take a close look at the heart to identify problems and to perform other tests or procedures.

Your healthcare provider may recommend cardiac catheterization to find out the cause of symptoms such as chest pain or irregular heartbeat. Before the procedure, you may need to diagnostic tests, such as blood tests, heart imaging tests, or a stress test, to determine how well your heart is working and to help guide the procedure.

During cardiac catheterization, a long, thin, flexible tube called a catheter is put into a blood vessel in your arm, groin or upper thigh, or neck. The catheter is then threaded through the blood vessels to your heart. It may be used to examine your heart valves or take samples of blood or heart muscle. Your doctor may also use ultrasound, a test that uses sound waves to create an image, or they may inject a dye into your coronary arteries to see whether your arteries are narrowed or blocked. Cardiac catheterization may also be used instead of some heart surgeries to repair heart defects and replace heart valves.

Cardiac catheterization is safe for most people. Problems following the procedure are rare but can include bleeding and blood clots. Your healthcare provider will monitor your condition and may recommend medicines to prevent blood clots.

Details

Cardiac catheterization (heart cath) is the insertion of a catheter into a chamber or vessel of the heart. This is done both for diagnostic and interventional purposes.

A common example of cardiac catheterization is coronary catheterization that involves catheterization of the coronary arteries for coronary artery disease and myocardial infarctions ("heart attacks"). Catheterization is most often performed in special laboratories with fluoroscopy and highly maneuverable tables. These "cath labs" are often equipped with cabinets of catheters, stents, balloons, etc. of various sizes to increase efficiency. Monitors show the fluoroscopy imaging, electrocardiogram (ECG), pressure waves, and more.

Procedure

"Cardiac catheterization" is a general term for a group of procedures. Access to the heart is obtained through a peripheral artery or vein. Commonly, this includes the radial artery, internal jugular vein, and femoral artery/vein. Each blood vessel has its advantages and disadvantages. Once access is obtained, plastic catheters (tiny hollow tubes) and flexible wires are used to navigate to and around the heart. Catheters come in numerous shapes, lengths, diameters, number of lumens, and other special features such as electrodes and balloons. Once in place, they are used to measure or intervene. Imaging is an important aspect to catheterization and commonly includes fluoroscopy but can also include forms of echocardiography (TTE, TEE, ICE) and ultrasound (IVUS).

TTE: Transthoracic echocardiogram
TEE: Transesophageal echocardiogram
ICE: Intracardiac echocardiogram
UVUS : Intravascular ultrasound

Obtaining access uses the Seldinger technique by puncturing the vessel with a needle, placing a wire through the needle into the lumen of the vessel, and then exchanging the needle for a larger plastic sheath. Finding the vessel with a needle can be challenging and both ultrasound and fluoroscopy can be used to aid in finding and confirming access. Sheaths typically have a side port that can be used to withdraw blood or inject fluids/medications, and they also have an end hole that permits introducing the catheters, wires, etc. coaxially into the blood vessel.

Once access is obtained, what is introduced into the vessel depends on the procedure being performed. Some catheters are formed to a particular shape and can really only be manipulated by inserting/withdrawing the catheter in the sheath and rotating the catheter. Others may include internal structures that permit internal manipulation (e.g., intracardiac echocardiography).

Finally, when the procedure is completed, the catheters are removed and the sheath is removed. With time, the hole made in the blood vessel will heal. Vascular closure devices can be used to speed along hemostasis.

Equipment

Much equipment is required for a facility to perform the numerous possible procedures for cardiac catheterization.

General:

* Catheters
* Film or Digital Camera
* Electrocardiography monitors
* External defibrillator
* Fluoroscopy
* Pressure transducers
* Sheaths

Percutaneous coronary intervention:

* Coronary stents: bare-metal stent (BMS) and drug-eluting stent (DES)
* Angioplasty balloons
* Atherectomy lasers and rotational devices
* Left atrial appendage occlusion devices

Electrophysiology:

* Ablation catheters: radiofrequency (RF) and cryo
* Pacemakers
* Defibrillators

Additional Information:

What is cardiac catheterization?

In cardiac catheterization (or cath), your healthcare provider puts a very small, flexible, hollow tube (catheter) into a blood vessel in the groin, arm, wrist, or in rare cases the neck. Then your provider threads it through the blood vessel into the aorta and into the heart. Once the catheter is in place, several tests may be done. Your provider can place the tip of the catheter into various parts of the heart to measure the pressures in the heart chambers. Or they can take blood samples to measure oxygen levels.

Your healthcare provider can guide the catheter into the coronary arteries and inject contrast dye to check blood flow through them. The coronary arteries are the vessels that carry blood to the heart muscle. This is called coronary angiography.

These are some of the other procedures that may be done during or after a cardiac cath:

* Angioplasty. In this procedure, your healthcare provider can inflate a tiny balloon at the tip of the catheter. This presses any plaque buildup against the artery wall and improves blood flow through the artery.

* Stent placement. In this procedure, your provider expands a tiny metal mesh coil or tube at the end of the catheter inside an artery to keep it open.

* Fractional flow reserve. This is a pressure management method that’s used in catheterization to see how much blockage is in an artery.

* Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS). This test uses a computer and a transducer to send out ultrasonic sound waves to make images of the blood vessels. By using IVUS, your healthcare provider can see and measure the inside of the blood vessels.

* Biopsy. Your provider may take out a small tissue sample and examine it under the microscope for abnormalities.

During the procedure, you will be awake. But a small amount of sedating medicine will be given before starting to help keep you comfortable.

Why might I need cardiac catheterization?

Your healthcare provider may use cardiac cath to help diagnosis these heart conditions:

* Atherosclerosis. This is a gradual clogging of the arteries by fatty materials and other substances in the blood stream.

* Cardiomyopathy. This is an enlargement of the heart due to thickening or weakening of the heart muscle

* Congenital heart disease. Defects in 1 or more heart structures that occur during fetal development, such as a ventricular septal defect (hole in the wall between the 2 lower chambers of the heart), are called congenital heart defects. This may lead to abnormal blood flow within the heart.

* Heart failure. This condition is when the heart muscle has become too weak to pump blood well. It causes fluid buildup (congestion) in the blood vessels and lungs, and edema (swelling) in the feet, ankles, and other parts of the body.

* Heart valve disease. This is when 1 or more of the heart valves isn't working right, affecting blood flow within the heart.

* Rejection after heart transplant. A biopsy is a common procedure after a heart transplant to monitor for rejection. Rejection is a process of your body's immune system attacking the donor heart. Medicines must be taken life-long following a transplant to prevent rejection.

You may have a cardiac cath if you have recently had 1 or more of these symptoms:

* Chest pain (angina)

* Shortness of breath

* Dizziness

* Extreme tiredness

If a screening exam, such as an electrocardiogram (ECG) or stress test, suggests there may be a heart condition that needs to be explored further, your healthcare provider may order a cardiac cath.

Another reason for a cath procedure is to evaluate blood flow to the heart muscle if chest pain occurs after the following:

* Heart attack

* Coronary artery bypass surgery

* Coronary angioplasty. This is opening a coronary artery using a balloon or other method.

* Placement of a stent. A stent is a tiny metal coil or tube placed inside an artery to keep the artery open.

There may be other reasons for your healthcare provider to recommend a cardiac cath.

What are the risks of cardiac catheterization?

Possible risks of cardiac cath include:

* Bleeding or bruising where the catheter is put into the body (the groin, arm, neck, or wrist)

* Pain where the catheter is put into the body

* Blood clot or damage to the blood vessel that the catheter is put into

* Infection where the catheter is put into the body

* Problems with heart rhythm (usually temporary)

More serious but rare complications include:

* Less blood flow to the heart tissue (ischemia), chest pain, or heart attack

* Sudden blockage of a coronary artery

* A tear in the lining of an artery

* Kidney damage from the dye used

* Bleeding from the heart itself

* Stroke

* Need for heart surgery

If you are pregnant or think you could be, tell your healthcare provider. There is a risk of injury to the unborn baby from a cardiac cath. Radiation exposure during pregnancy may lead to birth defects. Also be sure to tell your provider if you are lactating or breastfeeding.

There is a risk for allergic reaction to the dye used during the cardiac cath. If you are allergic to or sensitive to medicines, contrast dye, iodine, or latex, tell your healthcare provider. Also, tell them if you have kidney failure or other kidney problems.

For some people, having to lie still on the cardiac cath table for the length of the procedure may cause some discomfort or pain.

There may be other risks depending on your specific health problem. Be sure to talk about any concerns with your healthcare provider before the procedure.

How do I get ready for cardiac catheterization?

* Your healthcare provider will explain the procedure to you and give you a chance to ask any questions.

* You will be asked to sign a consent form that gives your permission to do the test. Read the form carefully and ask questions if anything is unclear.

* Tell your healthcare provider if you have ever had a reaction to any contrast dye, if you are allergic to iodine, or if you are sensitive to or are allergic to any medicines, latex, tape, and anesthetic agents (local and general).

* You will need to fast (not eat or drink) for a certain period before the procedure. Your provider will tell you how long to fast, usually overnight.

* If you are pregnant or think you could be, tell your provider.

* Tell your provider if you have any body piercings on your chest or belly (abdomen).

* Tell your provider about all the medicines (prescription and over-the-counter), vitamins, herbs, and supplements that you are taking.

* You may be asked to stop certain medicines before the procedure. Your provider will give you detailed instructions.

* Let your provider know if you have a history of bleeding disorders or if you are taking any anticoagulant (blood-thinning) medicines, aspirin, or other medicines that affect blood clotting. You may need to stop some of these medicines before the procedure.

* Let you provider know if you have any kidney problems. The contrast dye used during the cardiac cath can cause kidney damage in people who have poor kidney function. In some cases, blood tests may be done before and after the test to be sure that your kidneys are working correctly.

* Your provider may request a blood test before the procedure to see how long it takes your blood to clot. Other blood tests may be done as well.

* Tell your provider if you have heart valve disease.

* Tell your provider if you have a pacemaker or any other implanted cardiac devices.

* You may get a sedative before the procedure to help you relax. If a sedative is used, you will need someone to drive you home afterward.

Based on your medical condition, your healthcare provider may request other specific preparations.

What happens during a cardiac catheterization?

A cardiac cath can be done on an outpatient basis or as part of your stay in a hospital. Procedures may vary depending on your condition and your healthcare provider's practices.

Generally, a cardiac cath follows this process:

* You'll remove any jewelry or other objects that may interfere with the procedure. You may wear your dentures or hearing aids if you use either of these.

* Before the procedure, you should empty your bladder then change into a hospital gown.

* A healthcare provider may shave the area where the catheter will be put in. The catheter is most often put in at the groin area. But other places used are the wrist, inside the elbow, or the neck.

* A healthcare provider will start an IV (intravenous) line in your hand or arm before the procedure to give you IV fluids and medicines, if needed.

* You will lie on your back on the procedure table.

* You will be connected to an ECG monitor that records the electrical activity of your heart and keeps track of your heart during the procedure using small electrodes that stick to your skin. Your vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, and oxygen level) will be tracked during the procedure.

* Several monitor screens in the room will show your vital signs, the images of the catheter being moved through your body into your heart, and the structures of your heart as the dye is injected.

* You will get a sedative in your IV line before the procedure to help you relax. But you will likely be awake during the procedure.

* Your pulses below the catheter insertion site will be checked and marked so that the circulation to the limb can be checked after the procedure.

* Your healthcare provider will inject a local anesthetic (numbing medicine) into the skin where the catheter will be put in. You may feel some stinging at the site for a few seconds after the local anesthetic is injected.

* Once the local anesthetic has taken effect, your healthcare provider inserts a sheath, or introducer, into the blood vessel. This is a plastic tube through which the catheter is thread into the blood vessel and advanced into the heart. If the arm is used, your provider may make a small incision (cut) to expose the blood vessel and put in the sheath.

* Your healthcare provider will advance the catheter through the aorta to the left side of the heart. They may ask you to hold your breath, cough, or move your head a bit to get clear views and advance the catheter. You may be able to watch this process on a computer screen.

* Once the catheter is in place, your provider will inject contrast dye to visualize the heart and the coronary arteries. You may feel some effects when the contrast dye is injected into the catheter. These effects may include a flushing sensation, a salty or metallic taste in the mouth, nausea, or a brief headache. These effects usually last for only a few moments.

* Tell the provider if you feel any breathing difficulties, sweating, numbness, nausea or vomiting, chills, itching, or heart palpitations.

* After the contrast dye is injected, a series of rapid X-ray images of the heart and coronary arteries will be made. You may be asked to take a deep breath and hold it for a few seconds during this time. It’s important to be very still as the X-rays are taken.

* Once the procedure is done, your provider will remove the catheter and close the insertion site. They may close it using either collagen to seal the opening in the artery, sutures, a clip to bind the artery together, or by holding pressure over the area to keep the blood vessel from bleeding. Your provider will decide which method is best for you.

* If a closure device is used, a sterile dressing will be put over the site. If manual pressure is used, your healthcare provider (or an assistant) will hold pressure on the site so that a clot will form. Once the bleeding has stopped, a very tight bandage will be placed on the site.

* The staff will help you slide from the table onto a stretcher so that you can be taken to the recovery area. Note: If the catheter was placed in your groin, you will not be allowed to bend your leg for several hours. If the insertion site was in your arm, your arm will be elevated on pillows and kept straight by placing it in an arm guard (a plastic arm board designed to immobilize the elbow joint). In addition, a tight plastic band may be put around your arm near the insertion site. The band will be loosened over time and removed before you go home.

What happens after cardiac catheterization?

* In the hospital:

After the cardiac cath, you may be taken to a recovery room or returned to your hospital room. You will stay flat in bed for several hours. A nurse will keep track of your vital signs, the insertion site, and circulation in the affected leg or arm.

Let your nurse know right away if you feel any chest pain or tightness, or any other pain, as well as any feelings of warmth, bleeding, or pain at the insertion site.

Bedrest may vary from 4 to 6 hours. If your healthcare provider placed a closure device, your bedrest may be shorter.

In some cases, the sheath or introducer may be left in the insertion site. If so, you will be on bedrest until your provider or another team member removes the sheath. After the sheath is removed, you may be given a light meal.

You may feel the urge to urinate often because of the effects of the contrast dye and increased fluids. You will need to use a bedpan or urinal while on bedrest, so you don't bend the affected leg or arm.

After the period of bed rest, you may get out of bed. The nurse will help you the first time you get up. They may check your blood pressure while you are lying in bed, sitting, and standing. You should move slowly when getting up from the bed to prevent any dizziness from the long period of bed rest.

You may be given medicine for pain or discomfort related to the insertion site or having to lie flat and still for a prolonged period.

Drink plenty of water and other fluids to help flush the contrast dye from your body.

You may go back to your usual diet after the procedure, unless your healthcare provider tells you otherwise.

After the recovery period, you may be discharged home unless your healthcare provider decides otherwise. In many cases, you may spend the night in the hospital for careful observation. If the cardiac cath was done on an outpatient basis and a sedative was used, you must have another person drive you home.

* At home

Once at home, you should check the insertion site for bleeding, unusual pain, swelling, and abnormal discoloration or temperature change. A small bruise is normal. If you notice a constant or large amount of blood at the site that cannot be contained with a small dressing, contact your healthcare provider.

If your healthcare provider used a closure device at your insertion site, you will be given instructions on how to take care of the site. There may be a small knot, or lump, under the skin at the site. This is normal. The knot should go away over a few weeks.

It will be important to keep the insertion site clean and dry. Your healthcare provider will give you specific bathing instructions. In general, don't soak the access site in water (no bathtubs, hot tubs, or swimming) until the skin is healed at the site.

Your healthcare provider may advise you not to do any strenuous activities for a few days after the procedure. They'll tell you when it's OK to go back to work, drive, and resume normal activities.

Contact your healthcare provider if you have any of the following:

* Fever or chills

* Increased pain, redness, swelling, or bleeding or other drainage from the insertion site

* Coolness, numbness or tingling, or other changes in the affected arm or leg

* Chest pain or pressure, nausea or vomiting, profuse sweating, dizziness, or fainting

Your healthcare provider may give you other instructions after the procedure, depending on your situation.

Next steps

Before you agree to the test or procedure, make sure you know:

* The name of the test or procedure

* The reason you are having the test or procedure

* What results to expect and what they mean

* The risks and benefits of the test or procedure

* What the possible side effects or complications are

* When and where you are to have the test or procedure

* Who will do the test or procedure and what that person’s qualifications are

* What would happen if you did not have the test or procedure

* Any alternative tests or procedures to think about

* When and how you will get the results

* Who to call after the test or procedure if you have questions or problems

* How much you will have to pay for the test or procedure

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Pyrometer

Gist

A pyrometer is a non-contact device designed to measure high surface temperatures, typically above 500°C , by detecting infrared radiation emitted from an object. Ideal for industrial applications (e.g., smelting, glass manufacturing), these tools provide fast, accurate measurements for moving, inaccessible, or extremely hot materials.

A pyrometer is used for non-contact temperature measurement, particularly for very high temperatures (often above 500°C) or for objects that are too hot, far away, or difficult to reach with traditional thermometers, by detecting the thermal radiation (infrared) they emit. They are essential in industries like steel, glass, and electronics for monitoring furnaces, molten materials, and manufacturing processes where accuracy and safety are critical, ensuring consistent heat distribution.

Summary

A pyrometer is a device for measuring relatively high temperatures, such as are encountered in furnaces. Most pyrometers work by measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to be measured. Radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material being measured. Optical pyrometers, for example, measure the temperature of incandescent bodies by comparing them visually with a calibrated incandescent filament that can be adjusted in temperature. In an elementary radiation pyrometer, the radiation from the hot object is focused onto a thermopile, a collection of thermocouples, which generates an electrical voltage that depends on the intercepted radiation. Proper calibration permits this electrical voltage to be converted to the temperature of the hot object.

In resistance pyrometers a fine wire is put in contact with the object. The instrument converts the change in electrical resistance caused by heat to a reading of the temperature of the object. Thermocouple pyrometers measure the output of a thermocouple (q.v.) placed in contact with the hot body; by proper calibration, this output yields temperature. Pyrometers are closely akin to the bolometer and the thermistor and are used in thermometry.

Details

A pyrometer, or radiation thermometer, is a type of remote sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of distant objects. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed. In the modern usage, it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the amount of the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry, a type of radiometry.

The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, (pyr), and meter, meaning to measure. The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence, visible light emitted by a body which is at least red-hot. Infrared thermometers, can also measure the temperature of cooler objects, down to room temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation flux. Modern pyrometers are available for a wide range of wavelengths and are generally called radiation thermometers.

Principle

A pyrometer is based on the principle that the intensity of light received by the observer depends upon the distance of the observer from the source and the temperature of the distant source. A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (temperature T) is related to the thermal radiation of the target object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law.

This output is used to infer the object's temperature from a distance, with no need for the pyrometer to be in thermal contact with the object; most other thermometers (e.g. thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)) are placed in thermal contact with the object and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium.

Pyrometry of gases presents difficulties. These are most commonly overcome by using thin-filament pyrometry or soot pyrometry. Both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot gases.

Applications

Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched. Contemporary multispectral pyrometers are suitable for measuring high temperatures inside combustion chambers of gas turbine engines with high accuracy.

Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations. Reliable and continuous measurement of the metal temperature is essential for effective control of the operation. Smelting rates can be maximized, slag can be produced at the optimal temperature, fuel consumption is minimized and refractory life may also be lengthened. Thermocouples were the conventionally used for this purpose, but they are unsuitable for continuous measurement because they melt and degrade.

Salt bath furnaces operate at temperatures up to 1300 °C and are used for heat treatment. At very high working temperatures with intense heat transfer between molten salt and the steel being treated, precision is maintained by measuring the temperature of the molten salt. Most errors are caused by slag on the surface, which is cooler than the salt bath.

The tuyère pyrometer is an optical instrument for temperature measurement through the tuyères, which are normally used for feeding air or reactants into the bath of the furnace.

A steam boiler may be fitted with a pyrometer to measure the steam temperature in the superheater.

A hot air balloon is equipped with a pyrometer for measuring the temperature at the top of the envelope in order to prevent overheating of the fabric.

Pyrometers may be fitted to experimental gas turbine engines to measure the surface temperature of turbine blades. Such pyrometers can be paired with a tachometer to tie the pyrometer output with the position of an individual turbine blade. Timing combined with a radial position encoder allows engineers to determine the temperature at precise points on blades moving past the probe.

Additional Information

A pyrometer is a precision instrument designed to measure temperature from a distance by detecting infrared (IR) radiation. This contact-free method is critical for monitoring heat-intensive processes in various industries, including those involving molten metals, ceramics, and high-speed production lines.

Pyrometers work by detecting infrared (IR) radiation. A pyrometer is an optical device that uses a lens to focus the IR radiation onto a detector, which converts the IR radiation into an electrical signal. The temperature of the object can then be calculated from the strength of the IR radiation that is detected.

IR radiation refers to a specific part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is not visible to the naked eye. All objects with a temperature, including cold objects, emit IR radiation, but as an object’s temperature increases, so does the amount of IR radiation that it emits, so it is often referred to as “heat radiation”.

How Does a Pyrometer Determine a Temperature from IR?

To measure temperature with a pyrometer, the device must first be calibrated to a known temperature. This is typically done using a blackbody calibration source, a device that emits a known amount of IR radiation at specific temperatures.

The pyrometer uses a detector to measure the amount of IR radiation emitted by the object. The detector converts the IR radiation into an electrical signal, which is then processed by the pyrometer’s electronics to calculate the temperature of the object.

The temperature calculation is based on the principle that the amount of IR radiation emitted by an object is directly proportional to its temperature. Therefore, the more IR radiation that the pyrometer detects, the higher the object’s temperature. The pyrometer can then display the temperature of the object on its screen or output the temperature to a computer or other device.

What Can Interfere with the Accuracy of a Pyrometer?

It’s important to be aware of possible sources of interference that might cause a temperature reading error when using a pyrometer, for example:

* Other sources of IR radiation: IR radiation from another hot object nearby could influence the measurement if it can be picked up by the pyrometer’s field of view.
* Transparent materials: If a transparent material is being measured, hot objects behind the measured object might cause interference.
* Dust, steam, vapour, smoke, etc.: These can all attenuate IR radiation, leading to inaccurate measurements.
* Field of view errors: The spot has to fit the size of the object if a single-colour pyrometer is being used.
* Electromagnetic interference: Strong electromagnetic fields can interfere with a pyrometer’s electronics.

With careful consideration and the correct selection of the pyrometer, most of these potential sources of interference can be avoided.

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2506) Mountain Lion

Mountain Lion

Gist

Mountain lions are known by many names, including cougar, puma, catamount, painter, panther, and many more. They are the most wide-ranging cat species in the world and are found as far north as Canada and as far south as Chile.

The puma (Puma concolor) is a large cat belonging to the felidae family. It is similar in size to the jaguar, and is found is a wide variety of habitats throughout the Americas. It is also known as the cougar, mountain lion and a number of other names.

Summary

The cougar (Puma concolor), also called puma, mountain lion, catamount, and panther, is a large small cat native to the Americas. It inhabits North, Central and South America, making it the most widely distributed wild, terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere, and one of the most widespread in the world. Its range spans Yukon, British Columbia and Alberta in Canada, the Rocky Mountains and areas in the western United States. Further south, its range extends through Mexico to the Amazon rainforest and the southern Andes Mountains in Patagonia. It is an adaptable generalist species, occurring in most American habitat types. It prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking but also lives in open areas.

The cougar is largely solitary. Its activity pattern varies from diurnality and cathemerality to crepuscularity and nocturnality between protected and non-protected areas, and is apparently correlated with the presence of other predators, prey species, livestock and humans. It is an ambush predator that pursues a wide variety of prey. Ungulates, particularly deer, are its primary prey, but it also hunts rodents. It is territorial and lives at low population densities. Individual home ranges depend on terrain, vegetation and abundance of prey. While large, it is not always the dominant apex predator in its range, yielding prey to other predators. It is reclusive and mostly avoids people. Fatal attacks on humans are rare but increased in North America as more people entered cougar habitat and built farms.

The cougar is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Intensive hunting following European colonization of the Americas and ongoing human development into cougar habitat has caused populations to decline in most parts of its historical range. In particular, the eastern cougar population is considered to be mostly locally extinct in eastern North America since the early 20th century, with the exception of the isolated Florida panther subpopulation.

Details

The cougar is a cat of many names: Puma, mountain lion, and catamount, among others.

This adaptable predator has the widest range of any land mammal in the Western Hemisphere, and can be found in many habitats throughout the Americas, from Florida swamps to Canadian forests. In some areas, such as heavily urbanized southern California, cougars are increasingly sharing space with people.

Cougars are the world’s fourth largest wildcat after lions, tigers, and jaguars. They are stocky with large hind legs and a long tail—about a third of their length—which provides balance. Their strong back legs enable them to leap around 40 feet horizontally, or 18 feet vertically in a single jump.

Their scientific name—Puma concolor, which means “of one color” in Latin—refers to their evenly colored coat: usually a solid orange, yellow, tan, rusty brown, or gray with a white belly. In rare cases, cougars can be white, but no cases of black, or melanistic, cougars have ever been documented.

Hunting habits

Cougars hunt at dawn and dusk. They usually prey on deer, although these opportunistic predators also eat coyotes, moose, wild sheep, birds, and rodents. They even kill feral donkeys, an invasive species in California’s Death Valley National Park.

The cats silently stalk their prey, then pounce and kill them with a fatal bite to the back of the head or neck. When dealing with a large carcass, a cougar will eat as much as it can before hiding the rest to come back to later.

Harmful encounters with people are rare: Between 1924 and 2018, 74 cougar attacks—including 11 fatalities—were documented in 10 U.S. states.

Reproduction

Male cougars maintain large territories that overlap with several smaller territories of their mates. About three months after mating, a female gives birth to three or four kittens in a secluded den, where she stays for 10 days. Babies are born with camouflaged, spotted coats that fade into a solid color as they grow.

After six weeks, the family will leave the den, and kittens learn to hunt from their mother. Cougars are ready to set out on their own at around 18 months old. Males often strike out farther from their mother to avoid the threats of a rival male; one was recorded traveling 1,800 miles in search of a new home.

Hollywood cougar

Arguably the world’s most famous cougar was an animal called P-22, whose father was P-001—the first puma to be collared by the National Park Service. Born in the Santa Monica Mountains, P-22 left his birthplace to find his own territory and crossed some of the world’s busiest freeways to reach L.A.’s Griffith Park, part of the Hollywood Hills, where he lived for 10 years.

P-22 was compassionately euthanized in December 2022 when he was caught for an evaluation, which showed he was underweight, had organ failure, and was likely hit by a car.

Threats to survival

Cougars once roamed nearly all of the United States, but by the early 1900s, they were mostly hunted to extinction in the Midwest and eastern U.S. The Florida panther—a subspecies only found in Florida—survived, though today fewer than 200 individuals remain in the wild.

Overall, cougar populations are stable, and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List categorizes them as a species of least concern.

Yet throughout their wide range, the felines are threatened by poisonings from various substances, vehicle collisions, retaliatory killings, and hunting. (Learn more about cougars, also called ghost cats.)

Habitat fragmentation is also a pressing problem. Unlike P-22, most cougars can’t cross sprawling freeways, and this lack of connectivity causes low genetic diversity and inbreeding.

That’s why, in southern California, the Wallis Annenberg Wildlife Crossing will help various wildlife species safely cross U.S. Highway 101.

Additional Information

What's in a name? Mountain lion, puma, cougar, panther—these cats are known by more names than just about any other mammal! But no matter what you call them, they're still the same cat, Puma concolor, the largest of the "small cats." So why do we call them so many different names? Mostly because they have such a large range, and people from different countries have called them different things.

Early Spanish explorers of North and South America called them leon (lion) and gato monte (cat of the mountain), from which we get the name "mountain lion." “Puma” is the name the Incas gave these cats in their language. “Cougar” seems to have come from an old South American Indian word, cuguacuarana, which was shortened to "cuguar" and then spelled differently. And “panther” is a general term for cats that have solid-colored coats, so it was used for black pumas as well as black jaguars and black leopards. All of these names are considered correct, but in Southern California we most commonly call them mountain lions.

You may have heard of Florida panthers. They are a subspecies of mountain lion that used to be found from Texas throughout the southeast but now only live in southern Florida’s swamps. They are Endangered, with only about 200 cats left, and conservation efforts are underway to save them.

Mountain lions are generally a solid tawny color, with slightly darker hair on their back and a whitish underside. Those living in warm, humid areas tend to be a darker, reddish-brown color, and mountain lions found in colder climates have thicker, longer hair that is almost silver-gray in color. Adult males weigh 40 to 60 percent more than adult females. Scientists classify mountain lions as small cats, as they do not roar, but purr like smaller cats do. Their slender bodies and calm demeanor are more like that of a cheetah; both cats would rather flee than fight, and both rarely confront people.

Habitat and Diet

Besides people, mountain lions have the largest range of any terrestrial mammal in the Western hemisphere, from northern British Columbia to Argentina. They live in a variety of habitats, at home in forests, prairies, deserts, and swamps—they are very adaptable cats! Mountain lions are solitary, except during breeding or when a mother is caring for her cubs. But that doesn’t mean they don’t have any contact with one another.

Mountain lions live in home ranges that vary in size from 30 to 125 square miles (7,770 to 32,375 hectares). These ranges overlap, so cats share some parts. The home range of males tends to be largest and overlap the smaller ranges of several females. Mountain lions find shelter to rest or escape from bad weather in thick brush, rocky crevices, or caves, which might be anywhere in their home range.

Although cats may see each other occasionally, they mostly leave "messages," with feces, urine, scratched logs, or marks they scrape out in the dirt or snow. Mountain lions can also growl, hiss, mew, yowl, squeak, spit, and purr to get their message across to other cats, and they are known for a short, high-pitched scream and a whistle-like call.

Mountain lions are powerfully built, with large paws and sharp claws. Their hind legs are larger and more muscular than their front legs, which gives them great jumping power. They can run fast and have a flexible spine like a cheetah’s to help them maneuver around obstacles and change direction quickly.

Even so, mountain lions are mostly ambush hunters, launching at prey to knock it off balance. They have especially keen eyesight, and they usually find prey by seeing it move. These cats may be on the prowl during the day or at night, but they are most active at dusk and dawn.

Mountain lions hunt over a large area, and it can take a week for one to travel all the way around its home range. They eat a variety of prey depending on where they live, including deer, pigs, capybaras, raccoons, armadillos, hares, and squirrels. Some larger cats even bring down prey as big as an elk or a moose. But hunting large prey brings risk, and many mountain lions suffer life-threatening injuries received from a hunt, especially from a prey’s sharp horns, antlers, or hooves. Mountain lions often bury part of their kill to save for a later meal, hiding the food with leaves, grass, dirt, or even snow, depending on the habitat and time of year.

Family Life

A female ready to breed alerts any males in the area by calling and rubbing her scent on rocks and trees. A male may stay with a female for several days before looking for his next mate. An expectant mother sets up a den where she gives birth to one to six cubs. The newborns have spots, which may help them blend in with grass, brush, and dappled sunlight. Their mother nurses them for three months or so, but they can eat meat at about six weeks of age. At six months old, their spots begin to fade, and they learn to hunt. They continue to live with their mother until they're 12 to 18 months old.

Conservation

As more people have moved into mountain lion territory, the number of encounters with them has increased. This is often "big news" and frightens people. But overall, meeting a mountain lion is an unlikely event. Mountain lions don’t want to confront people, and they do their best to avoid us. You can avoid them, too, by not hiking alone, or at dusk and dawn when mountain lions are hunting. Make noise as you hike, and don’t leave food out around a cabin or campsite, especially at night. If you do happen across a mountain lion, never approach it—always keep a respectful distance.

When Europeans first settled in North America, mountain lions lived from coast to coast. But they soon came to be viewed as threats to livestock. By the 1940s, many states, including California, placed a bounty on mountain lions. Due in major part to the bounty system, mountain lions are now confined to the West, except for a small population in Florida. Some people continue to hunt them despite legal protections.

Mountain lions have an essential role to play in our ecosystem. They are one of the top predators, and without them, populations of deer and herbivores would become unhealthy and too large for the habitat. It’s true that mountain lions can be dangerous, and coexistence challenges should be reported to state or local wildlife organizations. But people like to live and play in or near natural habitats, so we need to understand and respect the wildlife that live there. If we take responsibility for our own actions, pets, livestock, and property, we can learn to peacefully coexist with mountain lions and appreciate their power and grace.

While globally mountain lion populations are stable, they still face threats like habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching of their prey, and retaliatory hunting. In California, mountain lions are classified as a specially protected mammal.

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