Posts by Jai Ganesh

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Osteoporosis

Gist

Osteoporosis is a bone disease that develops when bone mineral density and bone mass decreases, or when the structure and strength of bone changes. This can lead to a decrease in bone strength that can increase the risk of fractures (broken bones).

Osteoporosis is a “silent” disease because you typically do not have symptoms, and you may not even know you have the disease until you break a bone. Osteoporosis is the major cause of fractures in postmenopausal women and in older men. Fractures can occur in any bone but happen most often in bones of the hip, vertebrae in the spine, and wrist.

Summary

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disorder characterized by low bone mass (osteopenia), micro-architectural deterioration of bone tissue leading to more porous bone, and consequent increase in fracture risk. Bones undergo continuous remodeling: osteoclasts resorb old bone, and osteoblasts synthesize new bone. With advancing age, the rate of resorption exceeds that of bone formation, causing bones to lose density and become more susceptible to fractures.

It is the most common reason for a broken bone among the elderly. Bones that commonly break include the vertebrae in the spine, the bones of the forearm, the wrist, and the hip.

Until a broken bone occurs, there are typically no symptoms. Bones may weaken to such a degree that a break may occur with minor stress or spontaneously. After the broken bone heals, some people may have chronic pain and a decreased ability to carry out normal activities.

Osteoporosis may be due to lower-than-normal maximum bone mass and greater-than-normal bone loss. Bone loss increases after menopause in women due to lower levels of estrogen, and after andropause in older men due to lower levels of testosterone. Osteoporosis may also occur due to several diseases or treatments, including alcoholism, anorexia or underweight, hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, kidney disease, and after oophorectomy (surgical removal of the ovaries). Certain medications increase the rate of bone loss, including some antiseizure medications, chemotherapy, proton pump inhibitors, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, glucocorticosteroids, and overzealous levothyroxine suppression therapy. Smoking and sedentary lifestyle are also recognized as major risk factors. Osteoporosis is defined as a bone density of 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young adult. This is typically measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA).

Prevention of osteoporosis includes a proper diet during childhood, hormone replacement therapy for menopausal women, and efforts to avoid medications that increase the rate of bone loss. Efforts to prevent broken bones in those with osteoporosis include a good diet, exercise, and fall prevention. Lifestyle changes such as stopping smoking and not drinking alcohol may help. Bisphosphonate medications are useful to decrease future broken bones in those with previous broken bones due to osteoporosis. In those with osteoporosis but no previous broken bones, they have been shown to be less effective. They do not appear to affect the risk of death.

Osteoporosis becomes more common with age. About 15% of Caucasians in their 50s and 70% of those over 80 are affected. It is more common in women than men. In the developed world, depending on the method of diagnosis, 2% to 8% of males and 9% to 38% of females are affected. Rates of disease in the developing world are unclear. About 22 million women and 5.5 million men in the European Union had osteoporosis in 2010. In the United States in 2010, about 8 million women and between 1 and 2 million men had osteoporosis. White and Asian people are at greater risk for low bone mineral density due to their lower serum vitamin D levels and less vitamin D synthesis at certain latitudes. The word "osteoporosis" is from the Greek terms for "porous bones".

Details

Osteoporosis silently weakens your bones. This increases your risk of broken bones without you knowing it. You can prevent bone density loss with treatments and exercise. Ask your healthcare provider about a bone density test if you’re over 65 or have a family history of osteoporosis.

What Is Osteoporosis?

Osteoporosis is a disease that weakens your bones and makes them much more likely to fracture. It makes your bones thinner and less dense than they should be.

Your bones are usually dense and strong enough to support your weight and absorb most kinds of impacts. As you age, your bones naturally lose some of their density and their ability to regrow themselves. If you have osteoporosis, your bones are much more fragile than they should be, and are much weaker.

You might not know you have osteoporosis until it causes you to break a bone. Osteoporosis can make any of your bones more likely to break, but the most commonly affected bones include your:

* Hips
* Wrists
* Spine

Symptoms and Causes:

Symptoms of osteoporosis

Osteoporosis doesn’t have symptoms the way that lots of other conditions do. That’s why healthcare providers sometimes call it a silent disease.

You won’t feel or notice anything that signals you might have it. You won’t have a headache, fever or stomachache that lets you know something in your body is wrong.

The most common “symptom” is suddenly breaking a bone. Especially after a small fall or minor accident that usually wouldn’t hurt you.

Even though osteoporosis doesn’t directly cause symptoms, you might notice a few changes in your body that can mean your bones are losing strength or density. These warning signs of osteoporosis can include:

* Losing an inch or more of your height
* Changes in your natural posture, like stooping or bending forward more
* Shortness of breath (if disks in your spine are compressed enough to reduce your lung capacity)
* Lower back pain

It might be hard to notice changes in your own physical appearance. A loved one may be more likely to see them, especially your height or posture. People sometimes joke about friends or family members “shrinking” as they age. But this can be a sign that you should visit a healthcare provider for a bone density test.

Around 1 in 3 adults over 50 who don’t have osteoporosis have osteopenia. This means your bone density is lower than it should be for your age. It’s an early sign of osteoporosis. Osteopenia can progress to become osteoporosis if it’s not treated.

Osteoporosis causes

Osteoporosis happens as you age and your bones lose their ability to regrow and reform themselves.

Your bones are living tissue like any other part of your body. They’re constantly replacing their own cells and tissue throughout your life. Up until about age 30, your body naturally builds more bone than you lose. After age 35, bone breakdown happens faster than your body can replace it. This causes a gradual loss of bone mass.

If you have osteoporosis, you lose bone mass faster than usual. People in postmenopause lose bone mass even faster.

Risk factors

Anyone can develop osteoporosis. You may have a higher risk if you:

* Are over 50
* Are female, especially if you’re in postmenopause
* Have a biological family history of osteoporosis
* Are naturally thin or have a “smaller frame”
* Smoke or use tobacco products
* Don’t get enough vitamin D
* Aren’t physically active
* Regularly drink alcohol (having more than two drinks per day)

Certain health conditions can make you more likely to develop osteoporosis, including:

* Endocrine disorders like thyroid disease, hyperthyroidism and diabetes
* Gastrointestinal diseases like celiac disease and inflammatory bowel disease
* Autoimmune diseases that affect your bones, like rheumatoid arthritis or ankylosing spondylitis
* Blood disorders or blood cancers like multiple myeloma

Some medications or surgical procedures can increase your osteoporosis risk as a side effect, including:

* Diuretics
* Corticosteroids
* Some medications used to treat seizures
* Bariatric surgery
* Hormone therapy for cancer
* Blood thinners
* Proton pump inhibitors

Diagnosis and Tests:

How doctors diagnose osteoporosis

A healthcare provider will diagnose osteoporosis with a bone density test. Providers sometimes refer to bone density tests as DEXA scans, DXA scans or bone density scans. All of these are different names for the same test.

A bone density test uses low levels of X-rays to measure how much calcium and other minerals are in your bones. It’s similar to a typical X-ray. There are no needles or injections.

Checking for changes in your bone density is the best way to catch osteoporosis before it causes a fracture. Your provider might suggest you get regular bone density tests if:

* You have a family history of osteoporosis
* You’re over 50
* You have osteopenia
* You’re in postmenopause

Management and Treatment:

Treatment for osteoporosis:

The most important part of treating osteoporosis is preventing broken bones. Your healthcare provider will suggest treatments to strengthen your existing bone tissue and slow down any bone density loss.

The most common osteoporosis treatments include:

Exercise

Staying active can strengthen your bones. It also helps all the tissue connected to them, like your muscles, tendons and ligaments. Your provider might suggest weight-bearing exercise to strengthen your muscles and train your balance. Exercises that make your body work against gravity can improve your strength and balance without putting too much stress on your bones. Some good options include:

* Walking
* Yoga
* Pilates
* Tai chi

You might need to work with a physical therapist to find exercises and movements that are right for you.

Vitamin and mineral supplements

You might need over-the-counter or prescription calcium or vitamin D supplements. Your provider will tell you:

* Which type is best
* How often you should take them
* Which dosage you’ll need

Medications for osteoporosis

Your provider may suggest prescription medications. Some of the most common osteoporosis medications include:

* Hormone therapies, like replacement estrogen or testosterone
* Bisphosphonates

If you have severe osteoporosis or a high risk of fractures, you might need other medications, like:

* Parathyroid hormone (PTH) analogs
* Denosumab
* Romosozumab

These medications are usually given as injections.

When should I see my healthcare provider?

Visit a healthcare provider if you notice any changes in your body that might be osteoporosis warning signs. Tell your provider about any other symptoms you’re experiencing, especially if you have bone pain or trouble moving.

Outlook / Prognosis:

What can I expect if I have this condition?

You’ll need regular appointments with a healthcare provider. They’ll tell you how often you’ll need follow-up bone density tests. Your provider will monitor any changes in your bone density and will adjust your treatments as needed.

Broken bones can always cause complications. And that’s especially true as you age. Some fractures, like broken hips, can have a big impact on your life. Talk to your healthcare provider if you’re worried about your risk of falls or bone fractures. They’ll help you stay safe and healthy.

Prevention:

Can this be prevented?

Staying physically active and making sure you get enough calcium and vitamin D are the best ways to support your bone health. But osteoporosis isn’t always preventable. Your provider will help you find a combination of treatments that’s best for your unique needs.

Additional Information:

Overview

Osteoporosis causes bones to become weak and brittle — so brittle that a fall or even mild stresses such as bending over or coughing can cause a break. Osteoporosis-related breaks most commonly occur in the hip, wrist or spine.

Bone is living tissue that is constantly being broken down and replaced. Osteoporosis occurs when the creation of new bone doesn't keep up with the loss of old bone.

Osteoporosis affects people of all races. But women who are white or of Asian descent, especially older women who are past menopause, are at highest risk. Medicines, healthy diet and weight-bearing exercise can help prevent bone loss or strengthen already weak bones.

Symptoms

There often are no symptoms in the early stages of bone loss. But once osteoporosis weakens your bones, you might have symptoms of a fracture that include:

* Back pain caused by a broken or collapsed bone in the spine.
* Loss of height over time.
* A stooped posture.
* A bone that breaks much more easily than expected.

When to see a doctor

Talk with your healthcare professional about osteoporosis if you went through early menopause or took corticosteroids for several months at a time. Also see your care team if you have a parent or sibling with osteoporosis. This puts you at greater risk, especially if either of your parents had hip fractures.

Causes

Your bones are in a constant state of renewal — new bone is made and old bone is broken down. When you're young, your body makes new bone faster than it breaks down old bone and your bone mass increases. After the early 20s this process slows, and most people reach their peak bone mass by age 30. As people age, bone mass is lost faster than it's created.

How likely you are to develop osteoporosis depends partly on how much bone mass you built in your youth. Peak bone mass is partly inherited and also varies by race. The higher your peak bone mass, the more bone you have "in the bank" and the less likely you are to develop osteoporosis as you age.

Risk factors

A number of factors can increase the likelihood that you'll develop osteoporosis. Risk factors include your age, race, lifestyle choices, and medical conditions and treatments.

Risks you can't change

Some risk factors for osteoporosis are out of your control, including:

* sex assigned at birth. Women are much more likely to develop osteoporosis than are men.
* Age. The older you get, the greater your risk of osteoporosis.
* Race. You're at greatest risk of osteoporosis if you're white or of Asian descent.
* Family history. Having a parent or sibling with osteoporosis puts you at greater risk, especially if your mother or father fractured a hip.
* Body frame size. People who have small body frames tend to have a higher risk. This may be because they have less bone mass to draw from as they age.

Hormone levels

Osteoporosis is more common in people who have too much or too little of certain hormones in their bodies. Examples include:

* sex hormones. Lowered sex hormone levels tend to weaken bone. The fall in estrogen levels at menopause is one of the strongest risk factors for developing osteoporosis. Treatments for prostate cancer that reduce testosterone levels and treatments for breast cancer that reduce estrogen levels are likely to speed up bone loss.
* Thyroid hormone. Too much thyroid hormone can cause bone loss. This can occur if your thyroid makes too much hormone or if you take too much thyroid hormone medicine to treat a thyroid that doesn't make enough hormone.
* Hormones from other glands. Osteoporosis also has been associated with having too much of the hormones from the parathyroid and adrenal glands.

Dietary factors

Osteoporosis is more likely to occur in people who have:

* Low calcium intake. A lifelong lack of calcium plays a role in the development of osteoporosis. Low calcium intake contributes to lower bone density, early bone loss and an increased risk of fractures.
* Eating disorders. Severely restricting food intake and being underweight weakens bone in all people.
* Gastrointestinal surgery. Surgery to reduce the size of your stomach or to remove part of the intestine limits the amount of surface area available to absorb nutrients, including calcium. These surgeries include those to help you lose weight and those that treat other gastrointestinal conditions.

Steroids and other medicines

Long-term use of corticosteroid medicines, such as prednisone and cortisone, interferes with the bone-rebuilding process. These medicines are taken by mouth or shot. Osteoporosis also has been associated with medicines used to combat or prevent:

* Seizures.
* Gastric reflux.
* Cancer.
* Transplant rejection.

Medical conditions

The risk of osteoporosis is higher in people who have certain medical conditions, including:

* Celiac disease.
* Inflammatory bowel disease.
* Kidney or liver disease.
* Cancer.
* Multiple myeloma.
* Rheumatoid arthritis.

Lifestyle choices

Some habits can increase your risk of osteoporosis. Examples include:

* Sedentary lifestyle. People who spend a lot of time sitting have a higher risk of osteoporosis than do those who are more active. Weight-bearing exercise and activities that promote balance and good posture are good for your bones. Walking, running, jumping, dancing and weightlifting seem particularly helpful.
* Excessive alcohol use. Regular consumption of more than two alcoholic drinks a day increases the risk of osteoporosis.
* Tobacco use. The exact role tobacco plays in osteoporosis isn't clear, but tobacco use has been shown to contribute to weak bones.

Complications

Bone breaks, particularly in the spine or hip, are the most serious complications of osteoporosis. Hip fractures often are caused by a fall. A hip fracture can result in disability and even an increased risk of death within the first year after the injury.

In some cases, broken bones in the spine can occur even if you haven't fallen. The bones that make up the spine, called vertebrae, can weaken to the point of collapsing. This can result in back pain, lost height and a hunched posture.

Prevention

Good nutrition, regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle are essential to keep your bones healthy throughout your life. In early stages of bone loss, many people can manage their bone health with supplements, diet and exercise.

There is a lot of misinformation about supplements for bone health. Not all products that claim to prevent or treat osteoporosis are safe or effective. Talk with your healthcare professional about which supplements can help improve bone health.

Steps you can take to help prevent bone loss include:

Calcium

People between the ages of 18 and 50 need 1,000 milligrams of calcium a day. This daily amount increases to 1,200 milligrams when women turn 50 and men turn 70.

Good sources of calcium include:

* Low-fat dairy products.
* Dark green leafy vegetables.
* Canned salmon or sardines with bones.
* Soy products, such as tofu.
* Calcium-fortified cereals and orange juice.

If you find it hard to get enough calcium from your diet, consider taking calcium supplements. But too much calcium has been linked to kidney stones. Some experts suggest that too much calcium, especially in supplements, can increase the risk of heart disease. Research is ongoing.

The Food and Nutrition Board at the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommends that total calcium intake from supplements and diet combined should be no more than 2,000 milligrams daily for people older than 50.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D improves the body's ability to absorb calcium and improves bone health in other ways. People can get some of their vitamin D from sunlight. But this might not be a good source if you live in a high latitude, if you're housebound, or if you regularly use sunscreen or avoid the sun because of the risk of skin cancer.

Dietary sources of vitamin D include cod liver oil, trout and salmon. Many types of milk and cereal have been fortified with vitamin D.

Most people need at least 600 international units (IU) of vitamin D a day. That recommendation increases to 800 IU a day after age 70.

People without other sources of vitamin D and especially those with limited sun exposure might need a supplement. Most multivitamin products contain between 600 and 800 IU of vitamin D. Up to 4,000 IU of vitamin D a day is safe for most people.

Exercise

Exercise can help you build strong bones and slow bone loss. Exercise can benefit your bones no matter when you start. But you gain the most benefits if you start exercising regularly when you're young and continue to exercise throughout your life.

Combine strength training exercises with weight-bearing and balance exercises. Strength training helps strengthen muscles and bones in your arms and upper spine. Weight-bearing exercises — such as walking, running, stair climbing, skiing and impact-producing sports — affect mainly the bones in your legs, hips and lower spine. Balance exercises such as tai chi can reduce your risk of falling especially as you get older.

Healthy lifestyle

These healthy lifestyle suggestions might help reduce your risk of developing osteoporosis or breaking bones:

* Don't smoke. Smoking increases the rate of bone loss and the chance of fracture.
* Limit alcohol. Consuming more than two alcoholic drinks a day may decrease bone formation. Alcohol use also can increase your risk of falling.
* Prevent falls. Wear low-heeled shoes with nonslip soles. Check your house for electrical cords, area rugs and slippery surfaces that might cause you to fall. Keep rooms brightly lit. Install grab bars just inside and outside your shower door, and make sure you can get into and out of your bed easily.

Even when taking steps to prevent bone loss, some people continue to lose bone or have fractures. In these situations, treatment with medicines may become necessary. Even when medicines are used, diet, exercise and lifestyle choices still play an important role in bone health.

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Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2533) Liechtenstein

Gist

Liechtenstein is a tiny, wealthy, doubly landlocked constitutional monarchy in the Central European Alps between Austria and Switzerland. With a population of roughly 40,000, this German-speaking country is known for its scenic mountains, medieval castles, strong industrial sector, and high GDP per capita. The capital is Vaduz.

Is Liechtenstein a wealthy country?

Yes, Liechtenstein is considered one of the richest countries in the world. It boasts one of the highest GDP per capita rates globally—estimated at over $200,000 — driven by a strong high-end manufacturing sector, financial services, and low taxes. The tiny Alpine nation has virtually no debt or unemployment.

Summary

Liechtenstein, officially the Principality of Liechtenstein is a doubly landlocked country in the Central European Alps. It is located between Austria to the east and north-east and Switzerland to the north-west, west and south. Formed in 1719, Liechtenstein became fully independent upon the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866. Liechtenstein is a monarchy headed by the prince of Liechtenstein. Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein has reigned over Liechtenstein since 1989. Liechtenstein is Europe's fourth-smallest country, with an area of just over 160 square kilometres (62 square miles) and a population of 41,389. It is the world's smallest country to border two countries, and is one of the few countries with no debt. The official language of Liechtenstein is German.

Liechtenstein is divided into 11 municipalities. Its capital is Vaduz, and its largest municipality is Schaan. It is a member of the United Nations, the European Free Trade Association, and the Council of Europe. It is not a member state of the European Union, but it participates in both the Schengen Area and the European Economic Area. It has a customs union and a monetary union with Switzerland, with its usage of the Swiss franc. A constitutional referendum in 2003 granted the monarch greater powers, including the power to dismiss the government, nominate judges and veto legislation.

Liechtenstein has a strong financial sector centred in Vaduz. It was once known as a billionaire tax haven, culminating in a tax affair in 2008, but the principality has since made significant efforts to shed this reputation. An Alpine country, Liechtenstein is mountainous, making it a winter sport destination.

Details

Liechtenstein, western European principality located between Switzerland and Austria. It is one of the smallest countries of Europe; its capital is Vaduz.

Geography

The eastern two-thirds of the country is composed of the rugged foothills of the Rhätikon Mountains, part of the central Alps. The highest peak is Grauspitz, which rises to 8,527 feet (2,599 metres), and much of the principality is at an elevation above 6,000 feet (1,800 metres). The lower slopes of the mountains are covered by evergreen forests and alpine flowers, while their bare peaks are blanketed by snow. The mountains contain three major valleys and are drained by the Samina River. The western section of the principality is occupied by the Rhine River floodplain, which, together with the valley of the Ill River, forms a triangular lowland widening northward. The river valley was once marshy, but a drainage channel built in the 1930s has made its rich soils highly suitable for agriculture.

The climate of Liechtenstein is mild and is greatly affected by the warm southerly wind known as the foehn. Annual precipitation ranges, according to location, from about 35 to 47 inches (900 to 1,200 mm), though some areas in the mountains can receive as much as 75 inches (1,900 mm). In winter the temperature rarely falls below 5 °F (−15 °C), while in summer the average daily maximum temperature varies from the high 60s to the low 80s F (about 20 to 28 °C). These conditions allow for the cultivation of grapes and corn (maize), which is unusual in a mountainous area.

Liechtenstein has a remarkable variety of vegetation. Water milfoil and mare’s-tail as well as reeds, bulrush, bird’s eye primrose, and orchids can be found. The forests comprise a mixed woodland with copper beeches, common and Norway maple, sycamore, linden, elm, and ash. Liechtenstein is also rich in wildlife, including red deer, roe deer, chamois, hares, marmots, blackcocks, pheasants, hazel grouse, partridges, foxes, badgers, martens, polecats, stoats, and weasels.

Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy. Its head of state is the prince, who succeeds to the throne by heredity through the male line as determined by the regulations of the princely house. The constitution of 1921 provides for a unicameral Landtag (Diet), which consists of 25 members elected to four-year terms. The traditional regions of Vaduz and Schellenberg are still recognized as unique regions—the Upper Country (Oberland) and the Lower Country (Unterland), respectively—and they form separate electoral districts. All citizens age 18 or older who live in the principality are eligible to vote in national elections.

The government consists of a prime minister and four other cabinet officials (with at least two officials from each of the two electoral districts), who are appointed by the prince on the recommendation of the Landtag. The 11 Gemeinden (communes) are governed autonomously—but under government supervision—by mayors and city councils, elected every three years. To the south, the more industrial Upper Country contains the communes of Vaduz, Balzers, Triesen, Triesenberg, Schaan, and Planken. The Lower Country, to the north, is divided into the communes of Eschen, Mauren, Gamprin, Ruggell, and Schellenberg. The government maintains a nominal police force, but the standing army was abolished and neutrality proclaimed in 1868 (defense of the principality is the responsibility of Switzerland).

Liechtenstein has no natural resources of commercial value, and virtually all raw materials, including wood, have to be imported. All of the principality’s forested areas are protected in order to maintain the ecology of the mountain slopes and to guard against erosion. There is no heavy industry, but small manufacturing concerns are spread throughout the principality. Production includes metalworking, pharmaceuticals, precision instruments, electronic equipment, food processing, and the manufacture of consumer goods. In 1921 Liechtenstein adopted the Swiss franc as its currency, and in 1923 it joined a customs union with Switzerland.

Few workers are employed in agriculture, but the average farming unit is fairly large, and the biggest concerns concentrate on livestock and dairying. Crops include corn, potatoes, and cereals. Vineyards are few and are split into small units. The Alpine slopes are used for grazing during the summer.

Tourism is a leading sector of Liechtenstein’s economy and is sponsored by the government. Most visitors come from the surrounding European countries and centre their activities on Vaduz. The registration of tens of thousands of foreign firms in Liechtenstein provides a source of tax income. The principality has also become a centre of banking because of its stable political situation and its laws providing absolute bank secrecy. In the late 20th century, however, Liechtenstein became a centre for money laundering, and its laws were subsequently altered to prohibit the opening of accounts anonymously. Pressure from the United States and the European Union (EU) led to the reform of the banking sector in the early 21st century, and the country worked to shed its image as a tax haven.

There is a network of excellent roads connecting Liechtenstein with its neighbours. The railway, part of the Paris-Vienna express route, passes through the northern sections of the country. There is no airport.

Ethnic Liechtensteiners, who compose about two-thirds of the population, are descended from the Alemanni tribe that came into the region after 500 ce. Although the official language is German, most of the population still speaks an Alemanni dialect containing local variations in pronunciation and vocabulary. Walsers, descendants of immigrants from the Swiss canton of Valais, settled in Triesenberg at the end of the 13th century and continue to speak a particularly distinctive form of the language. About four-fifths of the population is Christian (with about three-fourths of the total population identifying as Roman Catholic).

Post-World War II industrialization resulted in a shift of people to the larger communes. The most populous communes are Vaduz, the administrative and commercial centre, and Schaan, the principal industrial community. Nevertheless, almost nine-tenths of the population is classified as rural.

Matters of public health are the responsibility of a committee of public health, which is headed by a state medical officer. Liechtenstein’s small medical institutions are supplemented by the excellent neighbouring Swiss facilities, to which the principality contributes support. Social security is sustained by a variety of compulsory insurance schemes; the financing of these comprehensive plans is shared by employers, employees, and the government.

Education is supervised by the National Board of Education and is compulsory beginning at age 7. The school system consists of primary schools, secondary schools, a vocational school, grammar school, commercial high school, music school, and a technical college. The University of Liechtenstein offers degrees in architecture and business administration.

The world-famous art collections of the princes of Liechtenstein, exhibited in the Engländerhaus in the centre of Vaduz, include outstanding works of many 17th-century Dutch and Flemish painters. There is also a State Art Collection (1969). The Liechtenstein Treasure Chamber (2015) housed a collection that included the world’s largest Fabergé egg, the crown jewels of the royal family, and lunar rocks gifted to the principality by NASA. The Liechtenstein Postal Museum (founded in 1930) exhibits a large stock of stamps, including national issues since 1912. The Liechtenstein National Museum in Vaduz houses primarily early and Roman artifacts. The Hilti Art Foundation building (2015) served as a showcase for one of the most important privately held collections in Liechtenstein. The Liechtenstein National Library was established in 1961 as a public foundation. A large personal art collection of the Liechtenstein family also is displayed at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna (which reopened in 2004 after having been closed since 1938). The Liechtenstein Institute conducts research on topics relating to the country, especially in the sciences, economics, and history.

History of Liechtenstein

The Rhine plain has always been the focus of settlement. For centuries the valley was occupied by two independent lordships of the Holy Roman Empire, Vaduz and Schellenberg. The principality of Liechtenstein, consisting of these two lordships, was founded in 1719 and remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was included in the Confederation of the Rhine from 1806 to 1815 and in the German Confederation from 1815 to 1866. In 1866 Liechtenstein became independent. Throughout most of its history, Liechtenstein was a quiet, rural corner of the world that was largely unaffected by its European neighbours, maintaining its neutrality in both World Wars I and II. After World War II, however, the country underwent a remarkably rapid period of industrialization, led by Francis Joseph II, who served as prince from 1938 until his death in 1989.

Francis Joseph II was succeeded by his son Hans Adam II, under whom Liechtenstein joined the United Nations (1990), the European Free Trade Association (1991), the European Economic Area (1995), and the World Trade Organization (1995). Relations between the Landtag and the prince were often tense. The prince offered several constitutional amendments that would strengthen his role, and he frequently threatened to relocate to Austria if his wishes were not granted. In a constitutional referendum in 2003, voters endorsed wider powers for the prince, including the right to veto legislation and the ability to implement emergency powers and to dismiss the government (even if it retained majority support in the Landtag); the referendum also gave citizens the right to call a vote of confidence in the prince, which could result in his removal. In 2004 Hans Adam’s son, Crown Prince Alois, assumed the day-to-day responsibilities of royal governance, though his father officially remained head of state. In 2006 the principality celebrated its 200th anniversary.

A massive tax-evasion scheme involving Liechtenstein’s banks came to light in 2008, and the government moved quickly to reassure investors and foreign leaders. A transparency and reform package adopted in 2009 led the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to remove Liechtenstein from its “black list” of tax havens. In 2011 Liechtenstein acceded to the Schengen Agreement, one of the EU’s foundational documents. The treaty relaxed border controls between its signatories, enabling passport-free travel within the Schengen area. The powers of the monarchy were reaffirmed in July 2012 when voters overwhelmingly rejected a measure that would have stripped Alois of the right to veto referenda.

Additional Information

The Principality of Liechtenstein is a tiny, doubly-landlocked country tucked away between Switzerland and Austria and with mountain slopes rising above the Rhine valley.

It owes much of its wealth to its traditional status as a tax haven, though it has in recent years taken steps to shake off its image as a tax haven and to reposition itself as a legitimate financial centre.

Economically, it has one of the highest levels of gross domestic products (GDP) per person in the world.

The country has come through a lengthy political wrangle over the role and power of the hereditary monarchy.

After an often bitter campaign, the people voted in March 2003 in a constitutional referendum to give Prince Hans-Adam sweeping new political powers. The following year he handed over practical power to his son, Crown Prince Alois.

Capital: Vaduz

Area: 160 sq km

Population: 38,300

Language: German

Life expectancy: 80 years (men) 85 years (women).

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Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

2470) Edward Calvin Kendall

Gist:

Work

Situated atop the kidneys are two small glands, the adrenal glands. Their function was unknown for a long time, but if they were injured, deficiency diseases ensued that ended in death. In the mid-1930s Edward Kendall and Tadeus Reichstein succeeded in isolating and analyzing the composition of a number of similar hormones derived from the adrenal cortex. These became the basis for cortisone preparations that, with input from Kendall and Philip Hench, were used at the end of the 1940s to treat rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammations.

Summary

Edward Calvin Kendall (born March 8, 1886, South Norwalk, Conn., U.S.—died May 4, 1972, Princeton, N.J.) was an American chemist who, with Philip S. Hench and Tadeus Reichstein, won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1950 for research on the structure and biological effects of adrenal cortex hormones.

A graduate of Columbia University (Ph.D. 1910), Kendall joined the staff of the Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minn., in 1914. His early research concerned the isolation of the active constituent (thyroxine) of the thyroid hormone. He also crystallized and established the chemical nature of glutathione, a compound important to biological oxidation-reduction reactions.

Kendall’s most important research, however was the isolation from the adrenal cortex of the steroid hormone cortisone (which he originally called compound E; 1935). With Hench, he successfully applied the hormone in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (1948). Kendall and Hench, along with Reichstein of Switzerland, received a Nobel Prize in 1950, and Kendall retired from his position as head of the biochemistry division of the Mayo Foundation in 1951. Kendall also acted as head of the biochemistry laboratory there from 1945 to 1951, and he was later visiting professor of chemistry at Princeton University.

Details

Edward Calvin Kendall (March 8, 1886 – May 4, 1972) was an American biochemist. In 1950, Kendall was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine along with Swiss chemist Tadeusz Reichstein and Mayo Clinic physician Philip S. Hench, for their work with the hormones of the adrenal glands. Kendall not only researched the adrenal glands, he also isolated thyroxine, a hormone of the thyroid gland and worked with the team that crystallized glutathione and identified its chemical structure.

Kendall was a biochemist at the Graduate School of the Mayo Foundation at the time of the Nobel award. He received his education at Columbia University. After retiring from his job with the Mayo Foundation, Kendall joined the faculty at Princeton University, where he remained until his death in 1972. Kendall Elementary School, in Norwalk is named for him.

Early life and education

Kendall was born in South Norwalk, Connecticut in 1886. He attended Columbia University, earning a Bachelor of Science degree in 1908, a Master of Science degree in Chemistry in 1909, and a Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1910.

Research career

After obtaining his Ph.D., his first job was in research for Parke, Davis and Company, and his first task was to isolate the hormone associated with the thyroid gland. He continued this research at St. Luke's Hospital in New York until 1914. He was appointed Head of the Biochemistry Section in the Graduate School of the Mayo Foundation, and the following year he was appointed as the Director of the Division of Biochemistry.

Kendall made several significant contributions to biochemistry and medicine. His most important discovery was the isolation of thyroxine, although it was not the work for which he received the most accolades. Along with associates, Kendall was involved with the isolation of glutathione and determining its structure. He also isolated several steroids from the adrenal gland cortex, one of which was initially called Compound E. Working with Mayo Clinic physician Philip Showalter Hench, Compound E was used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. The compound was eventually named cortisone. In 1950, Kendall and Hench, along with Swiss chemist Tadeus Reichstein were awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects." His Nobel lecture focused on the basic research that led to his award, and was titled "The Development of Cortisone As a Therapeutic Agent." As of the 2010 awards, Kendall and Hench were the only Nobel Laureates to be affiliated with Mayo Clinic.

Kendall was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1950, and both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society in 1951.

Kendall's career at Mayo ended in 1951, when he reached mandatory retirement age. He moved on to Princeton University, where he was a visiting professor in the Department of Biochemistry. He remained affiliated with Princeton until his death in 1972. In addition to the Nobel Prize, Kendall received other major awards including the Lasker Award, the Passano Foundation Award and the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. Kendall received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1966. He was awarded honorary doctorates from the University of Cincinnati, Western Reserve University, Williams College, Yale University, Columbia University, National University of Ireland, and Gustavus Adolphus College.

Family life

Kendall married Rebecca Kennedy in 1915, and they had four children. He died in 1972 in Princeton, New Jersey. His wife died in 1973.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Comfortable Quotes - VI

1. I cannot tell a lie, and I'm very straightforward. Sometimes this hurts people. I've wondered if I should change, but I feel more comfortable about myself this way. - Sushma Swaraj

2. My whole life, I've wanted to feel comfortable in my skin. It's the most liberating thing in the world. - Drew Barrymore

3. As my primary language was English, I had to work on my Hindi. I wasn't so comfortable with it. - Mandira Bedi

4. Beauty, to me is about being comfortable in your own skin. - Gwyneth Paltrow

5. I'm a young woman, and I'm growing up and trying to do it in a way I feel comfortable with. - Selena Gomez

6. I think the interaction I had with Salman in 'London Dreams' kind of helped to have a comfortable relationship in 'Ready' because of the rapport created. He is always very supportive. - Asin

7. I have a tightly edited closet. I like what I like. And I repeat a lot. But I'm always comfortable in jeans - I feel like I can really do anything when I'm in them. - Katie Holmes

8. I feel that modelling has groomed my personality and made me a confident person, but even today, when I go on the ramp, I get nervous. I am more comfortable being in front of the camera than walking on the ramp. - Kriti Sanon

9. I dress according to what suits me and what I am comfortable in. - Kajal Aggarwal

10. I'm most comfortable with the Southern dialects, really. It's easy, for example, for me to do Irish because we've got Irish heritage where I come from. - Brad Pitt

11. Leaving my house and getting on to a red carpet is always crazy for me, because you have to find a way to be comfortable in the most uncomfortable situation imaginable. - Sandra Bullock

12. Money can't buy everything, but it can buy most of it. Because of money, I could give my parents a comfortable life. - Kangana Ranaut.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: Did you hear about the angry pancake?
A: He just flipped.
* * *
Q: What did the young pancake say to the old burnt pancake?
A: I don't like your flip side.
* * *
Q: What do the New York Yankees and pancakes have in common?
A: They both need a good batter!
* * *
Q: How do you make a pancake smile?
A: Butter him up.
* * *
Q: What's the best pancake topping?
A: More pancakes.
* * *

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

Carbon Tetrachloride

Gist

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is a colorless, volatile liquid historically used as a cleaning agent, fire extinguisher component, and pesticide. Due to severe toxicity (liver/kidney damage) and ozone depletion, its use is heavily restricted. It is now largely limited to industrial applications as a chemical feedstock, solvent, and laboratory reagent.

Most industrial CCl4 is used in the synthesis of CFCs and chlorinated solvents. Production of CCl4 has been continuously declining in response to regulation.

Summary

Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names (such as carbon tet for short and tetrachloromethane, also recognised by the IUPAC), is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CCl4. It is a volatile, non-flammable, dense, colourless liquid with a chloroform-like sweet odour that can be detected at low levels. It was formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, as a precursor to refrigerants, an anthelmintic and a cleaning agent, but has since been phased out because of environmental and safety concerns. Exposure to high concentrations of carbon tetrachloride can affect the central nervous system and degenerate the liver and kidneys. Prolonged exposure can be fatal.

Properties

In the carbon tetrachloride molecule, four chlorine atoms are positioned symmetrically as corners in a tetrahedral configuration joined to a central carbon atom by single covalent bonds. Because of this symmetric geometry, CCl4 is non-polar. Methane gas has the same structure, making carbon tetrachloride a halomethane. As a solvent, it is well suited to dissolving other non-polar compounds such as fats and oils. It can also dissolve iodine. It is volatile, giving off vapors with an odor characteristic of other chlorinated solvents.

With a specific gravity greater than 1, carbon tetrachloride will be present as a dense nonaqueous phase liquid if sufficient quantities are spilt in the environment.

Details

Carbon tetrachloride, also known as tetrachloromethane, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CCl4. This compound is often classified as a polyhalogenated organic compound since it consists of a carbon atom which is attached to more than one halide functional group. Under standard conditions for temperature and pressure, CCl4 exists as a colourless liquid which emanates a very sweet odour.

In the past, this compound was widely used in cleaning agents. It was also used in fire extinguishers and was known to serve as a precursor to several refrigerants. However, the use of this compound has been phased out by several governments due to its toxicity. The inhalation of large quantities of carbon tetrachloride can cause serious damage to vital organs like the kidney and liver. It can also have negative effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Furthermore, prolonged human exposure to carbon tetrachloride often results in death.

Carbon tetrachloride was also widely used as a precursor to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). However, due to environmental concerns, the production of this compound has seen a sharp decline since the 1980s. Exposure to carbon tetrachloride is known to cause centrilobular hepatic necrosis. In the body, this compound is metabolized into the trichloromethyl radical, which is highly reactive. This trichloromethyl can go on to cause hepatocellular damage.

Structure of CCl4 Molecules

Carbon tetrachloride molecules have tetrahedral molecular geometries in which the central carbon atom is bonded to four chlorine atoms. The structure of CCl4 molecules is illustrated below.

It can be noted that the four chlorine atoms are positioned symmetrically at each corner around the central carbon atom in the CCl4 molecule. The bonds between the carbon atom and the chlorine atoms are covalent. As a consequence of the molecular geometry of this compound, it exhibits non-polar properties. It can be noted that the molecular structure of CCl4 is quite similar to that of CH4 (methane gas).

Properties of Carbon Tetrachloride:

Some important physical and chemical properties of CCl4 are listed below.

* The molar mass of carbon tetrachloride is 153.81 grams per mole.
* Under standard conditions, this compound exists in the liquid state. It has a colourless appearance and a sweet odour.
* The density of this compound (in its liquid state) corresponds to 1.5867 grams per cubic centimetre.
* The melting point of carbon tetrachloride is -22.93 degrees C whereas the boiling point of this compound corresponds to 76.72 degrees C.
* CCl4 is not very soluble in water. At a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius, the solubility of carbon tetrachloride in water is only 1 gram per litre (approx.). However, it can be noted that this compound is soluble in many organic solvents such as chloroform, benzene, alcohols, ethers, and formic acid.
* Carbon tetrachloride crystallizes in a monoclinic crystal lattice.
* The coordination geometry of this compound has a tetrahedral shape. The molecular shape of this compound is also tetrahedral. It can be noted that the central atom in this scenario is the carbon atom.
* The thermal capacity or the heat capacity of carbon tetrachloride is 132.6 Joules per mole Kelvin.
* The standard molar entropy associated with this organic compound is 214.42 Joules per mole Kelvin.

Key Applications of Tetrachloromethane

Before the 1980s, the primary application of carbon tetrachloride was in the production of chlorofluorocarbons for refrigeration. It was also used as a component of fire extinguishers and as a cleaning agent. However, despite the health hazards associated with this compound and the serious environmental damage caused by chlorofluorocarbons (see: ozone layer depletion), the use of this compound has been phased out by the governments of several countries. However, this compound is known to have other niche uses, some of which are listed below.

* Carbon tetrachloride is used as a chlorine source in a named reaction known as the Appel reaction.
* It is also used to reveal the watermarks that are placed on stamps without causing any damage to the stamp in the process.
* Carbon tetrachloride was also used as a component in the manufacture of lava lamps.
* Historically, CCl4 has been used in proton NMR spectroscopy.

Health Hazards Associated with CCl4

Carbon tetrachloride is a highly potent hepatotoxin which can cause serious damage to the liver. In high enough concentrations, this compound can also damage the central nervous system (CNS). Exposure to CCl4 for prolonged durations of time often leads to death or coma. Exposure to this compound has also been linked to cancer and kidney damage.

Frequently Asked Questions on Carbon Tetrachloride:

Q1: What are the uses of carbon tetrachloride?
A1: Carbon tetrachloride was commonly used in the past as a cleaning fluid (as a degreasing agent in dry cleaning institutions and other industries, and as a spot remover for clothes, furniture, and carpeting in households). Carbon tetrachloride has also been used in fire extinguishers and as a fumigant in grain in order to kill insects.

Q2: What happens when carbon tetrachloride is exposed to steam?
A2: In the presence of metals that can behave as catalysts (such as iron and aluminium), carbon tetrachloride is decomposed by water. If it is overheated steam, carbon tetrachloride can also be decomposed to create phosgene, even without the presence of a metal catalyst.

Q3: Comment on the structure of carbon tetrachloride.
A3: Four chlorine atoms are symmetrically arranged in the carbon tetrachloride molecule as corners in a tetrahedral structure, connected by single covalent bonds to a central carbon atom.

Q4: Why is carbon tetrachloride considered to be dangerous?
A4: Inhalation of carbon tetrachloride by human beings often lead to negative short term effects such as nausea, vomiting, lethargy, weakness, and headaches. Oral consumption of this compound can also contribute to these symptoms. Prolonged, long-term exposure to CCl4 is known to cause acute liver damage, acute kidney damage, and damage to the central nervous system. These health hazards associated with carbon tetrachloride are the reason why it is widely regarded as a dangerous substance.

Q5: What does carbon tetrachloride smell like?
A5: Carbon tetrachloride is known to have a strong, sweet odour. The smell associated with this chemical compound is quite similar to that of chloroform. CCl4 is a volatile organic compound that readily undergoes vaporization.

Additional Information

Carbon tetrachloride is a colourless, dense, highly toxic, volatile, nonflammable liquid possessing a characteristic odour and belonging to the family of organic halogen compounds, used principally in the manufacture of dichlorodifluoromethane (a refrigerant and propellant).

First prepared in 1839 by the reaction of chloroform with chlorine, carbon tetrachloride is manufactured by the reaction of chlorine with carbon disulfide or with methane. The process with methane became dominant in the United States in the 1950s, but the process with carbon disulfide remains important in countries where natural gas (the principal source of methane) is not plentiful. Carbon tetrachloride boils at 77° C (171° F) and freezes at -23° C (-9° F); it is much denser than water, in which it is practically insoluble.

Formerly used as a dry-cleaning solvent, carbon tetrachloride has been almost entirely displaced from this application by tetrachloroethylene, which is much more stable and less toxic.

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Conjunctivitis

Gist

Conjunctivitis (pink eye), specifically bacterial and viral types, spreads rapidly through direct contact with an infected person's eye secretions, touching contaminated surfaces, or inhaling airborne droplets from coughs/sneezes. It is highly contagious, often spreading via unwashed hands touching the eyes. Contrary to myths, it does not spread by just looking at someone.

Inflammation of the conjunctiva is known as conjunctivitis and is characterized by dilation of the conjunctival vessels, resulting in hyperemia and edema of the conjunctiva, typically with associated discharge. The prevalence of conjunctivitis varies according to the underlying cause, which may be influenced by the patient’s age, as well as the season of the year.

Summary

Conjunctivitis, also known as pink eye, is inflammation of the conjunctiva, the thin and clear layer that covers the white surface of the eye and the inner eyelid. It makes the eye appear pink or reddish. Pain, burning, scratchiness, or itchiness may occur. The affected eye may have increased tears or be stuck shut in the morning. Swelling of the sclera may also occur. Itching is more common in cases that are due to allergies. Conjunctivitis can affect one or both eyes.

The most common infectious causes in adults are viral, whereas in children bacterial causes predominate. The viral infection may occur along with other symptoms of a common cold. Both viral and bacterial cases are easily spread among people. Allergies to pollen or animal hair are also a common cause. Diagnosis is often based on signs and symptoms. Occasionally a sample of the discharge is sent for culture.

Prevention is partly by handwashing. Treatment depends on the underlying cause. In the majority of viral cases, there is no specific treatment. Most cases that are due to a bacterial infection also resolve without treatment; however antibiotics can shorten the illness. People who wear contact lenses and those whose infection is caused by gonorrhea or chlamydia should be treated. Allergic cases can be treated with antihistamines or mast cell inhibitor drops.

Between three and six million people get acute conjunctivitis each year in the United States. Typically they get better in one or two weeks. If visual loss, significant pain, sensitivity to light or signs of herpes occur, or if symptoms do not improve after a week, further diagnosis and treatment may be required. Conjunctivitis in a newborn, known as neonatal conjunctivitis, may also require specific treatment.

Details

Pink eye (conjunctivitis) is inflammation in your eyes. It happens when the membrane that covers the white of your eye is irritated. Viral and bacterial infections are the most common causes. You may not need treatment. But visit a healthcare provider if you have symptoms that are getting worse after a few days.

What Is Pink Eye?

What does pink eye look like? The white of your eye will be light pink to reddish and you might have puffiness, crusting or fluid (discharge) coming from your eye.
Pink eye is inflammation in the conjunctiva in your eye. The conjunctiva is the clear membrane that covers part of your eye and the inside of your eyelid. The medical name for pink eye is conjunctivitis. It’s extremely common. It can affect one eye or both at the same time.

Pink eye can be short term (acute) or long term (chronic). Acute pink eye lasts for fewer than four weeks. Chronic pink lasts for more than four weeks.

Pink eye caused by an infection can easily spread. You can accidentally pass it to other people or spread it from one eye to the other.

What does conjunctivitis look like?

Just like it sounds, pink eye can make the white part of your eye look pink or reddish. It can also make your eyelids look puffy or droopy. You may notice discharge coming from your affected eyes.

Symptoms and Causes

The most common conjunctivitis symptoms include:

* Red eye
* Thick eye discharge (yellow, green or white)
* Crusting on your eyelashes or eyelids
* Feeling like something’s stuck in your eye
* Dry, watery, itchy, irritated eyes
* Burning eyes
* Blurred vision (may come and go)
* Light sensitivity
* Swollen eyelids
* Eye pain (usually mild)

Pink eye can share symptoms with lots of other eye conditions. An eye doctor can help you understand what’s affecting your eyes.

Pink eye causes

Lots of issues and conditions can cause pink eye. Healthcare providers usually divide conjunctivitis into two categories — infectious and noninfectious.

Infectious pink eye

This happens when an infection causes conjunctivitis. Any type of infection can cause pink eye, including:

* Viral infections: Infections from the adenovirus family are the most common cause of acute pink eye. Other viral infections that can cause viral conjunctivitis include measles, mumps, COVID-19, eye herpes, molluscum contagiosum and hand, foot and mouth disease. Some viruses that cause sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can lead to pink eye.
* Bacterial infections: Bacterial infections are the second most common cause of pink eye. The bacteria that cause staph infections, strep throat and some types of meningitis can all cause bacterial conjunctivitis. STIs like chlamydia, gonorrhea and syphilis can, too.
* Fungal and parasitic infections: It’s possible for a fungus or parasite to cause pink eye. But it’s much less common than pink eye from a viral or bacterial infection.

Noninfectious conjunctivitis

This happens when something other than an infection causes conjunctivitis. This is pink eye that doesn’t spread to you from other people, animals or contaminated objects.

Examples include:

* Allergens: Molds, pollen or other substances that cause allergies can irritate your conjunctiva. This is called allergic conjunctivitis.
* Irritants or toxic substances: Anything that gets in your eye can cause inflammation. This includes soap, cosmetics, dirt, smoke or pool chlorine. Your contact lenses or contact solution can irritate your eyes sometimes, too, even if they usually don’t. Some medications can cause pink eye as a side effect.
* Eye injuries: Anything that damages your conjunctiva can lead to conjunctivitis.
* Other health conditions: Autoimmune diseases can irritate your eyes. It’s much less common, but so can tumors or eye cancers.

What are the complications of pink eye?

Untreated conjunctivitis can cause permanent eye damage and even blindness. But this is rare. Complications that can lead to vision loss include:

* Trachoma
* Uveitis
* Corneal inflammation and cornea-conjunctiva inflammation
* More severe corneal diseases, especially corneal ulcers and recurrent corneal erosions

See an eye doctor or your primary care provider if symptoms are getting worse after more than a few days. That’s the best way to avoid complications.

Diagnosis and Tests:

How doctors diagnose pink eye

A healthcare provider will diagnose conjunctivitis with an eye exam. They’ll examine your eye and ask about the symptoms. Tell your provider when you first noticed symptoms and how they’ve changed or gotten worse.

Your provider may also test for bacterial infections. They’ll use a soft-tipped swab to collect some of the fluid oozing from your eye for lab testing. Your provider can use the results to guide your treatment.

You might need a follow-up appointment. Your provider will make sure your eyes are healing and check for signs of complications.

Management and Treatment:

How is conjunctivitis treated?

Most of the time, you can treat pink eye symptoms at home until they get better. Your healthcare provider will suggest ways to manage symptoms, including:

* NSAIDs like ibuprofen (Advil® or Motrin®)
* Corticosteroids
* Applying a warm or cool compress to your eye (don’t share washcloths or towels with others)
* Artificial tears
* Wearing your glasses instead of contact lenses while you have symptoms

If an irritant gets in your eye, you need to rinse it out. Flush your eyes with warm water for five minutes. If a strong acid or alkaline substance (like drain cleaner) gets in your eye, flush your eyes the same way. Then, get immediate emergency medical attention.

Your provider might give you medications to treat a specific cause, including:

* Antivirals: Many viruses that cause pink eye don’t need treatment. But your provider will treat herpes simplex, chickenpox/shingles or an STI. These infections have a higher risk of complications.
* Antibiotics: Eye drops, ointments and pills can all treat bacterial infections.
* Antifungals or antiparasitics: These medications treat infections from fungi or parasites.
* Allergy medications: Your provider will suggest prescription or over-the-counter antihistamines or decongestants to manage allergies.
* Immunosuppressants: These medications can treat autoimmune diseases. They calm your immune system and can prevent it from damaging your eyes.

How long does pink eye last?

How long conjunctivitis lasts depends on what caused it. Viral infections typically last up to two weeks. It’s rare, but some may last longer. Bacterial infections usually last up to 10 days. Allergy-related pink eye lasts as long as you’re around the allergen causing the reaction.

When should I see my healthcare provider?

Visit a healthcare provider if you think you have pink eye and the symptoms keep getting worse after a few days.

Some symptoms can be a sign of a serious problem, like an eye ulcer. Visit a healthcare provider right away if you experience:

* A severe sensitivity to light
* Blurred vision or a decrease in vision
* Severe eye pain
* Feeling like there’s something stuck in your eye
* A large amount of eye discharge
* Worsening symptoms

Outlook / Prognosis:

What can I expect if I have conjunctivitis?

The outlook for pink eye is good, especially with treatment. Milder cases often go away on their own.

Call your provider if it seems like treatments aren’t helping. They may be able to adjust your medications.

Can conjunctivitis come back?

Yes, pink eye can come back. Allergy-related pink eye is the most likely kind to happen again. Your eyes may react every time you’re exposed to an allergen.

If you have bacterial or viral pink eye, you can accidentally reinfect yourself. To avoid that, you should:

* Wash your bed linens, pillowcases, towels and washcloths in hot water and detergent. Change them frequently.
* Avoid wearing eye makeup until the infection goes away. Throw out old eye makeup, makeup tools and any makeup you used right before you got pink eye.
* Wear glasses instead of contact lenses while you have conjunctivitis. Clean your glasses often.
* Throw away the contacts and the case you were using right before you noticed symptoms. Only use sterile contact solution. Wash your hands before touching your eyes and contacts.

Prevention:

How can you prevent conjunctivitis?

You may not always be able to prevent pink eye. But you can lower your risk of some types by:

* Washing or sanitizing your hands frequently: Use soap and water if your hands look or feel dirty. If they don’t look or feel dirty, you can use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer (at least 60% alcohol).
* Wearing eye protection: Make sure you wear the right eyewear for any work or hobbies. If you wear glasses, don’t assume they’re enough to protect your eyes.
* Never sharing things that touch your eyes: Grooming and hygiene items can spread conjunctivitis very easily. Don’t share makeup tools, personal grooming items, washcloths or anything else that directly touches your eyes.
* Safely using eye drops: Wash your hands before picking up the bottle. Only touch your face with the hand that isn’t holding the bottle. Make sure the bottle tip doesn’t touch your eye. After you put the drops in, set the bottle down, wash your hands and then put it away.

Additional Information

Pink eye is an inflammation of the transparent membrane that lines the eyelid and eyeball. This membrane is called the conjunctiva. When small blood vessels in the conjunctiva become swollen and irritated, they're more visible. This is what causes the whites of the eyes to appear reddish or pink. Pink eye also is called conjunctivitis.

Pink eye is most often caused by a viral infection. It also can be caused by a bacterial infection, an allergic reaction or — in babies — an incompletely opened tear duct.

Though pink eye can be irritating, it rarely affects your vision. Treatments can help ease the discomfort of pink eye. Because pink eye can be contagious, getting an early diagnosis and taking certain precautions can help limit its spread.

Symptoms

The most common pink eye symptoms include:

* Redness in one or both eyes.
* Itchiness in one or both eyes.
* A gritty feeling in one or both eyes.
* A discharge in one or both eyes that forms a crust during the night that may prevent your eye or eyes from opening in the morning.
* Tearing.
* Sensitivity to light, called photophobia.

When to see a doctor

There are serious eye conditions that can cause eye redness. These conditions may cause eye pain, a feeling that something is stuck in your eye, blurred vision and light sensitivity. If you experience these symptoms, seek urgent care.

People who wear contact lenses need to stop wearing their contacts as soon as pink eye symptoms begin. If your symptoms don't start to get better within 12 to 24 hours, make an appointment with your eye healthcare professional to make sure you don't have a more serious eye infection related to contact lens use.

Causes

Causes of pink eye include:

* Viruses.
* Bacteria.
* Allergies.
* A chemical splash in the eye.
A foreign object in the eye.
* In newborns, a blocked tear duct.

Viral and bacterial conjunctivitis

Most cases of pink eye are caused by adenovirus. It also can be caused by other viruses, including herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus.

Both viral and bacterial conjunctivitis can occur along with colds or symptoms of a respiratory infection, such as a sore throat. Wearing contact lenses that aren't cleaned properly or aren't your own can cause bacterial conjunctivitis.

Both types are very contagious. They are spread through direct or indirect contact with the liquid that drains from the eye of someone who's infected. One or both eyes may be affected.

Allergic conjunctivitis

Allergic conjunctivitis affects both eyes. It is a response to an allergy-causing substance such as pollen. In response to allergens, your body produces an antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE). IgE triggers special cells in the mucous lining of your eyes and airways to release inflammatory substances, including histamines. Your body's release of histamine can produce a number of allergy symptoms, including red or pink eyes.

If you have allergic conjunctivitis, you may experience intense itching, tearing and inflammation of the eyes. You also could have sneezing and watery nasal discharge. Most allergic conjunctivitis can be controlled with allergy eye drops. Allergic conjunctivitis is not contagious.

Conjunctivitis resulting from irritation

Irritation from a chemical splash or foreign object in the eye also is associated with conjunctivitis. Sometimes flushing and cleaning the eye to wash out the chemical or object causes redness and irritation. Symptoms, which may include watery eyes and a mucous discharge, usually clear up on their own within about a day.

If flushing doesn't resolve the symptoms, or if the chemical is a caustic one such as lye, see your healthcare professional or eye specialist as soon as possible. A chemical splash into the eye can cause permanent eye damage. Ongoing symptoms could indicate that you still have the foreign body in your eye. Or you also could have a scratch on the cornea or the membrane covering the eyeball, called the conjunctiva.

Risk factors

Risk factors for pink eye include:

* Exposure to someone infected with the viral or bacterial form of conjunctivitis.
* Exposure to something you're allergic to, for allergic conjunctivitis.
* Using contact lenses, especially extended-wear lenses.

Complications

In both children and adults, pink eye can cause inflammation in the cornea that can affect vision. Prompt evaluation and treatment by your healthcare professional can reduce the risk of complications. See your professional if you have:

* Eye pain.
* A feeling that something is stuck in the eye.
* Blurred vision.
* Light sensitivity.

Prevention:

Preventing the spread of pink eye

Practice good hygiene to control the spread of pink eye. For instance:

* Don't touch your eyes with your hands.
* Wash your hands often.
* Use a clean towel and washcloth daily.
* Don't share towels or washcloths.
* Change your pillowcases often.
* Throw away old eye cosmetics, such as mascara.
* Don't share eye cosmetics or personal eye care items.

Keep in mind that pink eye is no more contagious than the common cold. It's okay to return to work, school or child care if you're able to practice good hygiene and avoid close contact. However, if work, school or child care involves close contact with others, it may be best to stay home until your or your child's symptoms clear up.

Preventing pink eye in newborns

Newborns' eyes are susceptible to bacteria present in the mother's birth canal. These bacteria often cause no symptoms in the mother. In some cases, these bacteria can cause infants to develop a serious form of conjunctivitis known as ophthalmia neonatorum. This condition needs immediate treatment to keep the baby's sight. That's why shortly after birth, an antibiotic ointment is applied to every newborn's eyes. The ointment helps prevent eye infection.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#10813. What does the term in Biology Kinase mean?

#10814. What does the term in Biology Kingdom mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#6019. What does the noun intoxication mean?

#6020. What does the adjective intrinsic mean?

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#2606. What does the medical term Hinge joint mean?

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Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Hyperthyroidism

Gist

Hyperthyroidism is caused by an overactive thyroid gland producing excessive thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), commonly driven by Graves' disease (an autoimmune disorder), toxic thyroid nodules, or thyroid inflammation (thyroiditis). Other causes include high iodine intake, overmedication for hypothyroidism, and rarely, pituitary tumors.

Hyperthyroidism, or overactive thyroid, happens when your thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormones than your body needs.

Your thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It makes hormones that control the way the body uses energy. These hormones affect nearly every organ in your body and control many of your body's most important functions. For example, they affect your breathing, heart rate, weight, digestion, and moods. If not treated, hyperthyroidism can cause serious problems with your heart, bones, muscles, menstrual cycle, and fertility. But there are treatments that can help.

Summary

Hyperthyroidism means that your thyroid gland is making too much thyroid hormone. You may also hear the term thyrotoxicosis. This also means there is too much thyroid hormone in your body.

What are the symptoms Hyperthyroidism?

If there is too much thyroid hormone, your body speeds up and this can cause symptoms such as:

* increased sweating and feeling hot
* feeling like your heart is racing or is beating irregularly
* hand tremors
* anxiety, nervousness, and irritability
* weight loss despite normal or even increased appetite
* frequent bowel movements or diarrhea
* difficulty sleeping
* hair loss
* changes in menstrual periods, often lighter and/or less frequent
* trouble swallowing or fullness in the neck
* increased or decreased energy level
* pain behind the eyes and/or swelling or bulging of eyes (for autoimmune thyroid dysfunction only)

Everyone is different and you may not have all the symptoms. Symptoms can start suddenly or come on slowly over time.

Hyperthyroidism can be caused by an autoimmune condition (Graves’ disease), inflammation of the thyroid (thyroiditis), or due to thyroid nodules making too much thyroid hormone (hot nodule or toxic multinodular goiter). We will briefly describe each of these but be sure to check out our other resource links.

Graves' Disease:

Graves’ disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. It is an autoimmune thyroid condition caused by antibodies that stimulate all the cells in the thyroid gland to make too much thyroid hormone.

Details

Hyperthyroidism, also called overactive thyroid, happens when your thyroid makes and releases high levels of thyroid hormone. It speeds up several bodily functions, causing symptoms like rapid heart rate, weight loss, increased appetite and anxiety. Hyperthyroidism is treatable — typically with medications.

Overview:

What is hyperthyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism, also called overactive thyroid, is a condition where your thyroid makes and releases high levels of thyroid hormone. It has multiple possible causes. The main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).

Hyperthyroidism speeds up your metabolism, which can affect several aspects of your health. The condition can throw your whole well-being off balance. You may not feel like yourself or even feel out of control of your body. It’s important to get medical treatment if you develop signs of hyperthyroidism so you can get back to feeling like yourself.

How common is hyperthyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism is relatively rare. Approximately 1.3% of people in the United States have it.

Symptoms and Causes

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism can impact your entire body, so there are many symptoms. You may experience some of these symptoms and not others, or many of them at the same time. Symptoms of hyperthyroidism can include:

* Rapid heart rate (tachycardia) and/or heart palpitations.
* Increased blood pressure.
* Shakiness, like hand tremors.
* Feeling anxious, nervous and/or irritable.
* Weight loss despite a regular or increased appetite.
* Diarrhea or more frequent pooping.
* Increased sweating and sensitivity to warm temperatures.
* Hair loss or brittle hair.
* Difficulty sleeping (insomnia).
* Menstrual period changes, like lighter or missed periods.
* Swelling and enlargement of your neck (goiter).
* Swelling or bulging of your eyes (thyroid eye disease).

These symptoms can start suddenly or develop slowly over time. It’s important to see your healthcare provider if you develop hyperthyroidism symptoms.

What causes hyperthyroidism?

Medical conditions and situations that can cause hyperthyroidism include:

* Graves’ disease: This is an autoimmune condition that makes your thyroid overactive. Graves’ disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. Your chances of developing it increase if you have a biological family history of thyroid disease and/or another autoimmune condition.
* Thyroid nodules: These are lumps or growths of cells in your thyroid gland. They can sometimes produce excess thyroid hormone. Healthcare providers may call this toxic multinodular goiter (TMNG). Thyroid nodules are rarely cancerous.
* Thyroiditis: Thyroiditis is inflammation of your thyroid gland. It can cause hyperthyroidism temporarily. After this phase — the thyrotoxic phase — it may cause hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid). When the inflammation goes away, your hormone levels may stabilize.
* Consuming excess iodine: Consuming too much iodine (through foods or medications) can cause your thyroid to produce more thyroid hormone. Iodine is a mineral that your thyroid uses to create thyroid hormone. Receiving IV iodinated contrast (iodine “dye”) or taking amiodarone (a medication) may cause hyperthyroidism.
* TSH-releasing pituitary adenoma (thyrotropinoma): This is a growth in your pituitary gland that releases excess thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Your pituitary gland normally releases TSH to trigger your thyroid to release thyroid hormone. Excess TSH can lead to excess thyroid hormone. This is a very rare cause of hyperthyroidism.

What are the risk factors for hyperthyroidism?

Factors that increase your risk of developing hyperthyroidism include:

* Biological family history of thyroid disease and/or autoimmune conditions.
* Smoking.
* Pregnancy (for postpartum thyroiditis).

Diagnosis and Tests:

How is hyperthyroidism diagnosed?

The diagnostic process for hyperthyroidism may involve multiple steps, including:

* A physical exam: To start, your healthcare provider will do a physical exam to check for signs of hyperthyroidism, like an enlarged thyroid, rapid heart rate and warm, moist skin.
* Thyroid blood tests: Blood tests can check your thyroid hormone levels. When you have hyperthyroidism, levels of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4 are above normal and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is often (but not always) lower than normal.
* Thyroid antibody blood test: This test can check if Graves’ disease is the cause.
* Imaging tests: Various imaging tests of your thyroid can help diagnose hyperthyroidism and its cause. They include a radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) test and scan and a thyroid ultrasound. Your provider will go over the options and processes with you and recommend the test they think is best.

Management and Treatment:

What is the treatment for hyperthyroidism?

There are many treatment options for hyperthyroidism. Depending on the cause, some options may be better for you than others. Your healthcare provider will discuss each option with you and help you determine the best treatment plan.

Antithyroid medications

Methimazole (Tapazole®) and propylthiouracil (PTU) block the ability of your thyroid to make hormones. These medications are the most common treatment for hyperthyroidism. They can usually control thyroid function within two to three months. Your symptoms may get better within days to weeks.

Radioactive iodine (RAI) therapy

RAI therapy involves taking radioactive iodine by mouth in a single capsule or liquid dose. The radioactive iodine targets your thyroid cells specifically and destroys them. RAI usually leads to permanent destruction of your thyroid, which will cure hyperthyroidism. Most people who receive this treatment must take thyroid hormone medication (levothyroxine) for the rest of their lives to maintain normal thyroid hormone levels.

Surgery

A surgeon may remove all or part of your thyroid gland through surgery (thyroidectomy). This will correct hyperthyroidism but will usually cause hypothyroidism, requiring lifelong thyroid hormone medication.

Beta-blockers

Beta-blockers are medications that can help manage hyperthyroidism symptoms like rapid heartbeat, nervousness and shakiness. But they don’t change the level of hormones in your blood. Your provider may recommend beta-blockers alongside another treatment.

Each of these treatments has specific side effects and risks. Your provider will go over them with you. Don’t hesitate to ask questions.

Outlook / Prognosis:

What is the prognosis for someone with hyperthyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism is a treatable condition. Most people do well with treatment. While some forms of treatment require you to take medication for the rest of your life, this will help keep your thyroid hormone levels in a healthy range.

Untreated hyperthyroidism caused by Graves’ disease may get worse over time and cause complications, like Graves’ eye disease (Graves’ ophthalmopathy). If you have Graves’ disease, ask your healthcare provider how you can best manage the condition.

What happens if hyperthyroidism is left untreated?

Complications from untreated or undertreated hyperthyroidism include:

* Atrial fibrillation (Afib).
* Congestive heart failure.
* Infertility.
* Ischemic stroke.
* Osteoporosis.

A rare and life-threatening complication of hyperthyroidism is thyroid storm (thyroid crisis or thyrotoxic crisis). It happens when your thyroid makes and releases a large amount of thyroid hormone in a short amount of time. It’s an emergency that requires immediate medical attention.

Untreated or inadequately treated hyperthyroidism can cause thyroid storm. Stressors like infection, injury or surgery may trigger it.

Living With:

When should I see my healthcare provider?

* If you’re experiencing signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism, it’s important to see your healthcare provider so they can assess your condition and recommend treatment.

* If you already have a diagnosis, you’ll likely need to see your provider regularly to make sure your treatment is working.

* If you’re experiencing signs of thyroid storm, like a high fever and very fast heart rate, get to the nearest hospital as soon as possible.

Additional Common Questions:

Does hyperthyroidism cause weight gain?

Hyperthyroidism doesn’t typically cause weight gain. In fact, some people experience weight loss — even with an increased appetite. This is because hyperthyroidism speeds up your metabolic rate, causing your body to use more calories for energy than usual.

Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) slows down your metabolism, which may lead to weight gain.

Can I develop hyperthyroidism during pregnancy?

During early pregnancy, your body needs to produce more thyroid hormones than normal to help the developing fetus. Having thyroid hormone levels that are a little higher than normal is OK, but if your levels increase dramatically, your healthcare provider may need to form a treatment plan. High levels of thyroid hormones can impact not only you but also the fetus.

It can be difficult to diagnose hyperthyroidism during pregnancy because your thyroid hormone levels naturally increase and the other symptoms of pregnancy can mask signs of the condition.

What foods should I avoid with hyperthyroidism?

Eating too many iodine-rich or iodine-fortified foods may cause hyperthyroidism or make it worse in some cases.

If you have hyperthyroidism, your healthcare provider may recommend certain changes to your diet. Always consult your provider or a registered dietitian before making drastic changes to your diet. Know that diet changes alone often can’t fix hyperthyroidism. You’ll likely need medical treatment.

If your provider recommends a low-iodine diet, try to avoid the following foods:

* Fish.
* Seaweed and kelp.
* Crab and lobster.
* Sushi.
* Prawns.
* Algae and alginate
* Milk and dairy products, like cheese.
* Egg yolks.
* Iodized salt.

Additional Information

Hyperthyroidism happens when the thyroid gland makes too much thyroid hormone. This condition also is called overactive thyroid. Hyperthyroidism speeds up the body's metabolism. That can cause many symptoms, such as weight loss, hand tremors, and rapid or irregular heartbeat.

Several treatments are available for hyperthyroidism. Anti-thyroid medicines and radioiodine can be used to slow the amount of hormones the thyroid gland makes. Sometimes, hyperthyroidism treatment includes surgery to remove all or part of the thyroid gland. In some cases, depending on what's causing it, hyperthyroidism may improve without medication or other treatment.

Symptoms

Hyperthyroidism sometimes looks like other health problems. That can make it hard to diagnose. It can cause many symptoms, including:

* Losing weight without trying.
* Fast heartbeat, a condition called tachycardia.
* Irregular heartbeat, also called arrhythmia.
* Pounding of the heart, sometimes called heart palpitations.
* Increased hunger.
* Nervousness, anxiety and irritability.
* Tremor, usually a small trembling in the hands and fingers.
* Sweating.
* Changes in menstrual cycles.
* Increased sensitivity to heat.
* Changes in bowel patterns, especially more-frequent bowel movements.
* Enlarged thyroid gland, sometimes called a goiter, which may appear as a swelling at the base of the neck.
* Tiredness.
* Muscle weakness.
* Sleep problems.
* Warm, moist skin.
* Thinning skin.
* Fine, brittle hair.

Older adults are more likely to have symptoms that are hard to notice. These symptoms may include an irregular heartbeat, weight loss, depression, and feeling weak or tired during ordinary activities.

When to see a doctor

If you lose weight without trying, or if you notice a rapid heartbeat, unusual sweating, swelling at the base of your neck or other symptoms of hyperthyroidism, make an appointment with your health care provider. Tell your provider about all the symptoms you've noticed even if they are minor.

After a diagnosis of hyperthyroidism, most people need regular follow-up visits with their health care provider to monitor the condition.

Causes

Hyperthyroidism can be caused by several medical conditions that affect the thyroid gland. The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland at the base of the neck. It has a big impact on the body. Every part of metabolism is controlled by hormones that the thyroid gland makes.

The thyroid gland produces two main hormones: thyroxine (T-4) and triiodothyronine (T-3). These hormones affect every cell in the body. They support the rate at which the body uses fats and carbohydrates. They help control body temperature. They have an effect on heart rate. And they help control how much protein the body makes.

Hyperthyroidism happens when the thyroid gland puts too much of those thyroid hormones into the bloodstream. Conditions that can lead to hyperthyroidism include:

* Graves' disease. Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack the thyroid gland. That prompts the thyroid to make too much thyroid hormone. Graves' disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism.
* Overactive thyroid nodules. This condition also is called toxic adenoma, toxic multinodular goiter and Plummer disease. This form of hyperthyroidism happens when a thyroid adenoma makes too much thyroid hormone. An adenoma is a part of the gland that is walled off from the rest of the gland. It forms noncancerous lumps that can make the thyroid bigger than usual.
* Thyroiditis. This condition happens when the thyroid gland becomes inflamed. In some cases, it's due to an autoimmune disorder. In others, the reason for it is unclear. The inflammation can cause extra thyroid hormone stored in the thyroid gland to leak into the bloodstream and cause symptoms of hyperthyroidism.

Risk factors

Risk factors for hyperthyroidism include:

* A family history of thyroid disease, particularly Graves' disease.
* A personal history of certain chronic illnesses, including pernicious anemia and primary adrenal insufficiency.
* A recent pregnancy, which raises the risk of developing thyroiditis. This can lead to hyperthyroidism.

Complications

Hyperthyroidism can lead to the following complications.

* Heart problems

Some of the most serious complications of hyperthyroidism involve the heart, including:

* A heart rhythm disorder called atrial fibrillation that increases the risk of stroke.
* Congestive heart failure, a condition in which the heart can't circulate enough blood to meet the body's needs.
* Brittle bones
* Untreated hyperthyroidism can lead to weak, brittle bones. This condition is called osteoporosis. The strength of bones depends, in part, on the amount of calcium and other minerals in them. Too much thyroid hormone makes it hard for the body to get calcium into bones.

Vision problems

Some people with hyperthyroidism develop a problem called thyroid eye disease. It's more common in people who smoke. This disorder affects the muscles and other tissues around the eyes.

Symptoms of thyroid eye disease include:

* Bulging eyes.
* Gritty sensation in the eyes.
* Pressure or pain in the eyes.
* Puffy or retracted eyelids.
* Reddened or inflamed eyes.
* Light sensitivity.
* Double vision.
* Eye problems that go untreated may cause vision loss.

Discolored, swollen skin

In rare cases, people with Graves' disease develop Graves' dermopathy. This causes the skin to change colors and swell, often on the shins and feet.

Thyrotoxic crisis

This rare condition also is called thyroid storm. Hyperthyroidism raises the risk of thyrotoxic crisis. It causes severe, sometimes life-threatening symptoms. It requires emergency medical care. Symptoms may include:

* Fever.
* Fast heartbeat.
* Nausea.
* Vomiting.
* Diarrhea.
* Dehydration.
* Confusion.
* Delirium.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2532) Barium Hydroxide

Barium Hydroxide

Gist

Barium hydroxide, with the chemical formula (Ba(OH)2), is a strong base that appears as a white solid and is highly soluble in water. It is primarily used in industry as a component in lubricants, corrosion inhibitors, and as a stabilizer for plastics, as well as in analytical chemistry for titrating weak acids.

Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) is a strong, caustic alkali primarily used in industry as a precursor to other barium compounds, a sulfate removal agent in water treatment, and a stabilizer for plastics. It is also used in lubricating grease manufacturing, ceramic/glass production, and as an analytical laboratory reagent for titrating weak acids.

Summary

Barium hydroxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula Ba(OH)2. The monohydrate (x = 1), known as baryta or baryta-water, is one of the principal compounds of barium. This white granular monohydrate is the usual commercial form.

Preparation and structure

Barium hydroxide can be prepared by dissolving barium oxide (BaO) in water:

BaO + H2O → Ba(OH)2

It crystallises as the octahydrate, which converts to the monohydrate upon heating in air. At 100 °C in a vacuum, the monohydrate will yield BaO and water. The monohydrate adopts a layered structure. The Ba2+ centers adopt a square antiprismatic geometry. Each Ba2+ center is bound by two water ligands and six hydroxide ligands, which are respectively doubly and triply bridging to neighboring Ba2+ centre sites. In the octahydrate, the individual Ba2+ centers are again eight coordinate but do not share ligands.

Uses

Industrially, barium hydroxide is used as the precursor to other barium compounds. The monohydrate is used to dehydrate and remove sulfate from various products. This application exploits the very low solubility of barium sulfate. This industrial application is also applied to laboratory uses.

Laboratory uses

Barium hydroxide is used in analytical chemistry for the titration of weak acids, particularly organic acids. Its aqueous solution, if clear, is guaranteed to be free of carbonate, unlike those of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide, as barium carbonate is insoluble in water. This allows the use of indicators such as phenolphthalein or thymolphthalein (with alkaline colour changes) without the risk of titration errors due to the presence of carbonate ions, which are much less basic.

Barium hydroxide is occasionally used in organic synthesis as a strong base, for example for the hydrolysis of esters and nitriles, and as a base in aldol condensations.

There are several uses for barium hydroxide such as to hydrolyse one of the two equivalent ester groups in dimethyl hendecanedioate.

Details

Barium hydroxide is also called as baryta with the formula (Ba(OH)2). It is a clear white powder with no odour. It is poisonous in nature. It is ionic in nature for example, Ba(OH)2 (barium hydroxide) in aqueous solution can provide two hydroxide ions per molecule. Barium hydroxide is the only reagent described for metalizing carboxamidesBarium hydroxide was less degradative as compared to barium oxide.

Physical Properties of Barium hydroxide – (Ba(OH)2)

Odour : Odourless
Appearance : White solid
Covalently-Bonded Unit : 3
Vapour Pressure : 0.48 kPa at 17.6 deg C
pH : 11.27
Solubility : Slightly soluble in cold water.

Uses of Barium hydroxide – (Ba(OH)2)

* Barium hydroxide forms a strong caustic base in aqueous solution. It has many uses, e.g., as a test for sulphides; in pesticides; in the manufacture of alkali and glass.
* Use of barium hydroxide lime rather than soda lime, high sevoflurane concentration, high absorbent temperature, and fresh absorbent use.
* Used in the manufacture of alkalis, glass, oil and grease additives, barium soaps, and other barium compounds.

Health Hazard

* Inhalation of barium dusts can cause irritation of the nose and upper respiratory tract and may produce benign pneumoconiosis known as baritosis.
* Barium ions are toxic to muscles especially heart, producing stimulation and then paralysis.
* It is extremely dangerous neurotoxin. Adverse effect may result like effects on the heart and the function of the central nervous system (CNS).

Frequently Asked Questions - FAQs:

What are the uses of barium hydroxide?

Industrially, barium hydroxide is used as a precursor to several other barium compounds. The monohydrate of this compound is widely used to dehydrate and extract sulfate from different products. The very low solubility of barium sulfate is utilized in this application.

How is barium hydroxide prepared?

Barium hydroxide is usually prepared by dissolving barium oxide (chemical formula: BaO) in water. The chemical equation for this reaction is provided below.

BaO + 9 H2O → Ba(OH)2·8H2O

It can be noted that this compound crystallizes into the octahydrate form, which is then converted into a monohydrate by heating it in air.

What happens when barium hydroxide is heated?

When heated to 800° C, barium hydroxide decomposes to yield barium oxide. Barium carbonate is provided by reaction with carbon dioxide. The strongly alkaline, aqueous solution undergoes neutralization reactions with acids.

Additional Information:

Key Properties
Appearance: White powder or crystals.
Forms: Exists as anhydrous, monohydrate, and octahydrate.
Solubility: Dissolves in water, forming a basic solution.
Basicity: A strong base that dissociates completely in water.
Melting Point: Varies by hydration, from 78 degrees centigrade for octahydrate 107 degrees centigrade.

Common Applications for anhydrous.

* Industrial: Used in barium grease manufacturing, as a heat stabilizer for PVC, and in the production of plastics, pigments, and synthetic materials.
* Chemical/Laboratory: Used to remove carbonate from water, in the titration of organic acids, and for catalyzing organic reactions.
* Processing: Employed in the refining of animal and vegetable oils and in sugar production.

Barium hydroxide is a salt-like compound from the group of alkaline earth metal hydroxides, which is an important laboratory chemical, and is used in the chemical industry as an intermediate for the production of other barium compounds and for various technical applications. To produce the substance, the compounds barium sulfide and barium oxide obtained from heavy spar are mixed with water, with the resulting barium hydroxide precipitating as a crystalline solid.

Barium hydroxide serves, among other things, as a precursor for the use of other barium compounds. In ceramic and glass production, the substance is also used as a substitute for barium carbonate. Because of its ability to form different crystalline structures at different temperatures, barium hydroxide can be used to store thermal energy. In analytical chemistry, the substance is also used as a detection agent for carbonates and carbon dioxide, while in industrial applications it is used to remove sulfates from materials and products.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

2469) Philip Showalter Hench

Gist:

Work

Situated atop the kidneys are two small glands, the adrenal glands. Their function was unknown for a long time, but if they were injured, deficiency diseases ensued that ended in death. In the mid-1930s Edward Kendall and Tadeus Reichstein succeeded in isolating and analyzing the composition of a number of similar hormones derived from the adrenal cortex. These became the basis for cortisone preparations that, with input from Kendall and Philip Hench, were used at the end of the 1940s to treat rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammations.

Summary

Philip Showalter Hench (born Feb. 28, 1896, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—died March 30, 1965, Ocho Rios, Jam.) was an American physician who with Edward C. Kendall in 1948 successfully applied an adrenal hormone (later known as cortisone) in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. With Kendall and Tadeus Reichstein of Switzerland, Hench received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1950 for discoveries concerning hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects.

Hench received his medical degree from the University of Pittsburgh in 1920 and spent almost his entire career at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn. For many years he sought a method of treating the painful and crippling disease of rheumatoid arthritis. Working at the Mayo Clinic, he noticed that during pregnancy and in the presence of jaundice the severe pain of arthritis may decrease and even disappear. This led him to suspect that arthritis is caused by a biochemical disturbance, perhaps one involving glandular hormones, rather than by a bacterial infection. In search of a treatment he and Kendall studied endocrinologic factors in rheumatic diseases. In the mid-1940s Kendall synthesized the steroid hormone cortisone, and in 1948 he and Hench tried the drug on arthritic patients. They showed a remarkable improvement, and cortisone became a key drug in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Cortisone and similar steroids are still useful in treating a number of diseases, but the claims that greeted their early employment were excessive.

Details

Philip Showalter Hench (February 28, 1896 – March 30, 1965) was an American physician. Hench, along with his Mayo Clinic co-worker Edward Calvin Kendall and Swiss chemist Tadeus Reichstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1950 for the discovery of the hormone cortisone, and its application for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The Nobel Committee bestowed the award for the trio's "discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects."

Hench received his undergraduate education at Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, and received his medical training at the United States Army Medical Corps and the University of Pittsburgh. He began working at Mayo Clinic in 1923, later serving as the head of the Department of Rheumatology. In addition to the Nobel Prize, Hench received many other awards and honors throughout his career. He also had a lifelong interest in the history and discovery of yellow fever.

Early life

He attended Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts in 1916. After serving in the Medical Corps of the U.S. Army and the reserve corps to finish his medical training, he was awarded a doctorate in medicine from the University of Pittsburgh in 1920. Immediately after finishing his medical degree, Hench spent a year as an intern at St. Francis Hospital in Pittsburgh, and then he subsequently became a Fellow of the Mayo Foundation.

In 1928 and 1929, Hench furthered his education at Freiburg University and the von Müller Clinic in Munich.

Medical career

Hench started his career at Mayo Clinic in 1923, working in the Department of Rheumatic Diseases. In 1926, he became the head of the department. While at Mayo Clinic, Hench focused his work on arthritic diseases, where his observations led him to hypothesize that steroids alleviated pain associated with the disease. During this same time, biochemist Edward Calvin Kendall has isolated several steroids from the adrenal gland cortex. After several years of work, the duo decided to try one of these steroids (dubbed Compound E at the time, later to become known as cortisone) on patients afflicted by rheumatoid arthritis. Testing of the hypothesis was delayed because the synthesis of Compound E was costly and time-consuming, and Hench served in the military during World War II. The tests were conducted successfully in 1948 and 1949.

Hench, Kendall, and Swiss chemist Tadeus Reichstein were awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects." As of the 2010 prizes, Hench and Kendall are the only two Nobel laureates affiliated with Mayo Clinic. Hench's Nobel Lecture was directly related to the research he was honored for, and titled "The Reversibility of Certain Rheumatic and Non-Rheumatic Conditions by the Use of Cortisone Or of the Pituitary Adrenocorticotropic Hormone". His speech at the banquet during the award ceremony acknowledged the connections between the study of medicine and chemistry, saying of his co-winners "Perhaps the ratio of one physician to two chemists is symbolic, since medicine is so firmly linked to chemistry by a double bond."

During his career, Hench was one of the founding members of the American Rheumatism Association, and served as its president in 1940 and 1941. In addition to the Nobel Prize, Hench has been awarded the Heberdeen Medal (1942), the Lasker Award (1949), the Passano Foundation Award (1950), and the Criss Award. Lafayette College, Washington and Jefferson College, Western Reserve University, the National University of Ireland and the University of Pittsburgh awarded Hench honorary doctorates.

In addition to his work with cortisone, Hench had a career long interest in yellow fever. Starting in 1937, Hench began to document the history behind the discovery of yellow fever. His collection of documents on this subject are at the University of Virginia in the Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection. His wife donated the collection to the university after his death.

Family

Hench married Mary Kahler (1905–1982) in 1927. His father-in-law, John Henry Kahler, was a friend of Mayo Clinic founder William J. Mayo. Hench and his wife had four children, two daughters and two sons. His son, Philip Kahler Hench also studied rheumatology. Hench died of pneumonia while on vacation in Ocho Rios, Jamaica in 1965.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Comfortable Quotes - V

1. The reality is I have a closet full of shoes that I don't wear because they are not comfortable, and I am not going to be hobbling between meetings. There's nothing that ruins an entrance like somebody who's uncomfortable in their shoes. - Ivanka Trump

2. I have a little spa at home. I put together a room where I get massages, pedicures, manicures. It's comfortable in my own home, and it's very private. It's very relaxing. - Melania Trump

3. If it's the right chair, it doesn't take too long to get comfortable in it. - Robert De Niro

4. The world in general doesn't know what to make of originality; it is startled out of its comfortable habits of thought, and its first reaction is one of anger. - W. Somerset Maugham

5. People can judge me for what I've done. And I think when somebody's out in the public eye, that's what they do. So I'm fully comfortable with who I am, what I stand for, and what I've always stood for. - Hillary Clinton

6. You can never guarantee the wins but you can guarantee that you give it 100%. That way you can always look back and feel comfortable, as a player or a coach. - Ivan Lendl

7. I started out as a stand-up comedian. And that's what I'm most comfortable doing. - Eddie Murphy

8. In all life one should comfort the afflicted, but verily, also, one should afflict the comfortable, and especially when they are comfortably, contentedly, even happily wrong. - John Kenneth Galbraith.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: What water yields the most beautiful organic vegetables?
A: Perspiration!
* * *
Q: How many grams of protein are in an organic apple pie?
A: 3.14159265
* * *
Q: Why are organic bananas never lonely?
A: Because they hang around in bunches.
* * *
Q: What do you call a comedy club that sells organic food?
A: Trader Jokes.
** *
Q: Why did Snow white eat the apple?
A: Because the old lady said it was organic.
* * *

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

Potassium Permanganate

Gist

Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is a powerful oxidizing agent widely used as an antiseptic, disinfectant, and water treatment chemical. Its primary applications include treating skin infections (eczema, athlete’s foot), purifying water by removing iron and manganese, sanitizing produce, and preserving fruit by absorbing ethylene.

Potassium permanganate appears as a purplish colored crystalline solid. Noncombustible but accelerates the burning of combustible material. If the combustible material is finely divided the mixture may be explosive. Contact with liquid combustible materials may result in spontaneous ignition. Contact with sulfuric acid may cause fire or explosion. Used to make other chemicals and as a disinfectant.

Summary

Potassium permanganate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula KMnO4. It is a purplish-black crystalline salt to give an intensely pink to purple solution.

Potassium permanganate is widely used in the chemical industry and laboratories as a strong oxidizing agent, and also traditionally as a medication for dermatitis, for cleaning wounds, and general disinfection. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It has a great variety of niche uses such as biocide for water treatment purposes and for tanning and dyeing cloth. In 2000, worldwide production was estimated at 30,000 tons.

It is also referred to as chameleon mineral, Condy's crystals, permanganate of potash, hypermangan, purple potion powder, permanganic acid (potassium salt), and purple salt.

Details

Potassium permanganate is a common chemical compound that combines manganese oxide ore with potassium hydroxide. It’s used to treat fungal infections of the skin like infected eczema and athlete’s foot.

First developed as a disinfectant in 1857, potassium permanganate is a combination of manganese oxide ore and potassium hydroxide and is widely used to treat a variety of skin conditions, including fungal infections. In many countries, including the United States, you’ll need a prescription from your doctor to receive potassium permanganate.

What does it treat?

When applied to your skin, potassium permanganate kills germs by releasing oxygen when it meets compounds in your skin. It also acts as an astringent, which is a drying agent.

Some of the conditions that potassium permanganate can help treat include:

* Infected eczema. If you have eczema with blisters, potassium permanganate can help to dry them out.
* Open and blistering wounds. Potassium permanganate is used as a wet dressing for wounds on your skin’s surface that are blistered or oozing pus.
* Athlete’s foot and impetigo. Potassium permanganate can help to treat both bacterial and fungal skin infections such as athlete’s foot and impetigo.

How do I use it?

Before applying potassium permanganate to your skin, it’s important to dilute it with water. Most medical uses require a dilution of 1 part to 10 when using a 0.1% potassium permanganate solution.

To achieve an appropriate dilution using potassium permanganate 0.1% solution, combine 1 part potassium permanganate with 10 parts hot water. Undiluted potassium permanganate has a striking purple color, but a diluted solution should be pink.

Potassium permanganate must be diluted since an undiluted solution may cause burns. Even with dilution, it may irritate the skin, and with repeated use may still cause burns.

Potassium permanganate also comes in 400-milligram (mg) tablets. To utilize the tablets in a bath soak, dissolve 1 tablet in 4 liters of hot water before pouring into the bath. The bath soak may be repeated twice daily for two days.

Here are some guidelines on how to use potassium permanganate for specific conditions:

* Infected eczema. Use or create a dilution of 1 part in 10,000. Add it to a basin or bath tub and soak the affected part of your body.
* Superficial wounds. Apply a dilution of 1 part in 10,000 to a bandage and apply it over your wound. Change the bandage two to three times a day.
* Athlete’s foot. For severe infections, soak your foot in a 1 part in 10,000 dilution of potassium permanganate every eight hours. Depending on how severe your infection is, your doctor might prescribe a stronger solution.
* Impetigo. Gently rub a dilution of 1 part in 10,000 on the affected skin to removed loose bits of skin.

Depending on your condition, your doctor might instruct you to create a stronger solution with a dilution of 1 part in 7,000. To achieve this, mix 1 part potassium permanganate with 7 parts hot water. This will create a slightly darker pink liquid.

Are there any side effects?

Potassium permanganate is generally safe, but it may leave a brown stain on your skin and nails, which should fade after a day or two. It might also leave a stain in your bathtub that’s hard to remove, which is why many people prefer to use it in a smaller basin.

Adverse side effects include skin irritation, redness, or burns.

Is it safe?

Potassium permanganate is a powerful solution that must be diluted before applying it to your skin. If it’s not diluted, it can damage your skin as well as the mucus membranes of your nose, eyes, throat etc.

Avoid using it near your eyes, and make sure you don’t swallow any, even in its diluted form.

For added safety, make sure you wear gloves when you’re preparing a dilution. If you’re using potassium permanganate tablets or crystals, make sure they’re fully dissolved in water before using the solution. Using hot (not boiling) water will help them dissolve.

If it irritates your skin or causes redness, stop using it immediately and contact your doctor.

The bottom line

A 1 in 10,000 dilution of potassium permanganate can be a cheap and effective treatment for infected eczema, impetigo, and other skin ailments. Carefully follow the prescribed dilutions, and consult your doctor if you experience any irritation.

Additional Information

Potassium permanganate appears as a purplish colored crystalline solid. Noncombustible but accelerates the burning of combustible material. If the combustible material is finely divided the mixture may be explosive. Contact with liquid combustible materials may result in spontaneous ignition. Contact with sulfuric acid may cause fire or explosion. Used to make other chemicals and as a disinfectant.

Potassium permanganate is a chemical compound of manganese prepared from manganese dioxide. It is a powerful oxidizing agent and used a fixative, disinfectant, and as a reagent in organic synthesis. Manganese is a naturally occurring metal with the symbol Mn and the atomic number 25. It does not occur naturally in its pure form, but is found in many types of rocks in combination with other substances such as oxygen, sulfur, or chlorine. Manganese occurs naturally in most foods and small amounts are needed to stay healthy, as manganese ions act as cofactors for a number of enzymes.

Permanganic acid (HMnO4), potassium salt. A highly oxidative, water-soluble compound with purple crystals, and a sweet taste.

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