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2461) Andes Mountains

Gist

The Andes Mountains are located along the western coastline of South America. The name Andes stems from the Quechua word anti, which means high crest. The Andes is the world's longest range of mountains and runs north to south along the Pacific Ring of Fire and seven countries from Venezuela to Chile.

The Andes Mountains are not only one of the longest mountain ranges in the world but also the highest range outside of the Himalayas, making them an important natural landmark and a wonderful source of biodiversity for the region.

How cold are the Andes mountains at night?

From 11,500 to 14,800 feet it generally is cold—with great differences between day and night and between sunshine and shadow—and temperatures are below freezing at night. Between about 13,500 and 15,700 feet (the puna), the climate of the páramo is found, with constant subfreezing temperatures.

Summary

The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (Spanish: Cordillera de los Andes; Quechua: Anti) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is 8,900 km (5,500 mi) long and 200 to 700 km (120 to 430 mi) wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S latitude) and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Andes extend from south to north through seven South American countries: Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.

Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions. The Andes are the location of several high plateaus—some of which host major cities such as Arequipa, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, El Alto, La Paz, Mérida, Santiago and Sucre. The Altiplano Plateau is the world's second highest after the Tibetan Plateau. These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes.

The Andes are the highest mountain range outside of Asia. The range's highest peak, Argentina's Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m (22,838 ft) above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation. The world's highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile–Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft).

The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the Americas and Antarctica.

Details

Andes Mountains is a mountain system of South America and one of the great natural features on Earth.

The Andes consist of a vast series of extremely high plateaus surmounted by even higher peaks that form an unbroken rampart over a distance of some 5,500 miles (8,900 kilometers)—from the southern tip of South America to the continent’s northernmost coast on the Caribbean. They separate a narrow western coastal area from the rest of the continent, affecting deeply the conditions of life within the ranges themselves and in surrounding areas. The Andes contain the highest peaks in the Western Hemisphere. The highest of them is Mount Aconcagua (22,831 feet [6,959 meters]) on the border of Argentina and Chile (see Researcher’s Note: Height of Mount Aconcagua).

The Andes are not a single line of formidable peaks but rather a succession of parallel and transverse mountain ranges, or cordilleras, and of intervening plateaus and depressions. Distinct eastern and western ranges—respectively named the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Occidental—are characteristic of most of the system. The directional trend of both the cordilleras generally is north-south, but in several places the Cordillera Oriental bulges eastward to form either isolated peninsula-like ranges or such high intermontane plateau regions as the Altiplano (Spanish: “High Plateau”), occupying adjoining parts of Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, and Peru.

Some historians believe the name Andes comes from the Quechuan word anti (“east”); others suggest it is derived from the Quechuan anta (“copper”). It perhaps is more reasonable to ascribe it to the anta of the older Aymara language, which connotes copper color generally.

Physical features

There is no universal agreement about the major north-south subdivisions of the Andes system. For the purposes of this discussion, the system is divided into three broad categories. From south to north these are the Southern Andes, consisting of the Chilean, Fuegian, and Patagonian cordilleras; the Central Andes, including the Peruvian cordilleras; and the Northern Andes, encompassing the Ecuadorian, Colombian, and Venezuelan (or Caribbean) cordilleras.

Geology

The Andean mountain system is the result of global plate-tectonic forces during the Cenozoic Era (roughly the past 65 million years) that built upon earlier geologic activity. About 250 million years ago the crustal plates constituting the Earth’s landmass were joined together into the supercontinent Pangaea. The subsequent breakup of Pangaea and of its southern portion, Gondwana, dispersed these plates outward, where they began to take the form and position of the present-day continents. The collision (or convergence) of two of these plates—the continental South American Plate and the oceanic Nazca Plate—gave rise to the orogenic (mountain-building) activity that produced the Andes.

Many of the rocks comprising the present-day cordilleras are of great age. They began as sediments eroded from the Amazonia craton (or Brazilian shield)—the ancient granitic continental fragment that constitutes much of Brazil—and deposited between about 450 and 250 million years ago on the craton’s western flank. The weight of these deposits forced a subsidence (downwarping) of the crust, and the resulting pressure and heat metamorphosed the deposits into more resistant rocks; thus, sandstone, siltstone, and limestone were transformed, respectively, into quartzite, shale, and marble.

Approximately 170 million years ago this complex geologic matrix began to be uplifted as the eastern edge of the Nazca Plate was forced under the western edge of the South American Plate (i.e., the Nazca Plate was subducted), the result of the latter plate’s westward movement in response to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean to the east. This subduction-uplift process was accompanied by the intrusion of considerable quantities of magma from the mantle, first in the form of a volcanic arc along the western edge of the South American Plate and later by the injection of hot solutions into surrounding continental rocks; the latter process created numerous dikes and veins containing concentrations of economically valuable minerals that later were to play a critical role in the human occupation of the Andes.

The intensity of this activity increased during the Cenozoic Era, and the present shape of the cordilleras emerged. The accepted time period for their rise had been from about 15 million to 6 million years ago. However, through the use of more advanced techniques, researchers in the early 21st century were able to determine that the uplift started much earlier, about 25 million years ago. The resultant mountain system exhibits an extraordinary vertical differential of more than 40,000 feet between the bottom of the Peru-Chile (Atacama) Trench off the Pacific coast of the continent and the peaks of the high mountains within a horizontal distance of less than 200 miles. The tectonic processes that created the Andes have continued to the present day. The system—part of the larger circum-Pacific volcanic chain that often is called the Ring of Fire—remains volcanically active and is subject to devastating earthquakes.

Physiography of the Southern Andes

The Fuegian Andes begin on the mountainous Estados (Staten) Island, the easternmost point of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago, reaching an elevation of 3,700 feet. They run to the west through Grande Island, where the highest ridges—including Mounts Darwin, Valdivieso, and Sorondo—are all less than 7,900 feet high. The physiography of this southernmost subdivision of the Andes system is complicated by the presence of the independent Sierra de la Costa.

The Patagonian Andes rise north of the Strait of Magellan. Numerous transverse and longitudinal depressions and breaches cut this wild and rugged portion of the Andes, sometimes completely; many ranges are occupied by ice fields, glaciers, rivers, lakes, or fjords. The crests of the mountains exceed 10,000 feet (Mount Fitz Roy reaching 11,073 feet) north to latitude 46° S but average only 6,500–8,400 feet from latitude 46° to 41° S, except for Mount Tronador (11,453 feet). North of Lake Aluminé (Argentina) the axis of the cordillera shifts to the east up to a zone of transition between latitude 37° and 35° S, where the geographic aspect and geomorphic structure change. This zone marks the most commonly accepted northern extent of the Patagonian Andes; there is some disagreement, however, about this limit, some placing it farther south, at the Gulf of Penas, (47° S) and others considering it to be to the north, around 30° S.

The line of permanent snow becomes higher in elevation with decreasing latitude in the Southern Andes: 2,300 feet in Tierra del Fuego, 5,000 feet at Osorno Volcano (41° S), and 12,000 feet at Domuyo Volcano (36°38′ S). A line of active volcanoes—including Yate, Corcovado, and Macá—occurs about 40° to 46° S; the southernmost of these, Mount Hudson of Chile, erupted in 1991. Enormous ice fields are located between Mount Fitz Roy (called Mount Chaltel in Chile) and Lake Buenos Aires (Lake General Carrera in Chile) at both sides of Baker Fjord; the Viedma, Upsala, and other glaciers originate from these fields. Other notable features are the more than 50 lakes found south of 39° S. Those depressions that are free of water form fertile valleys called vegas, which are easily reached by low passes. Magnificent and impenetrable forests grow on both sides of these cordilleras, especially on the western slopes; these forests cover the mountains as high as the snow line, although at the higher altitudes toward the north and in Tierra del Fuego the vegetation is lower and less dense. Both Argentina and Chile have created national parks to preserve the area’s natural beauty.

Physiography of the Central Andes

The Central Andes begin at latitude 35° S, at a point where the cordillera undergoes a sharp change of character. Its width increases to about 50 miles, and it becomes arid and higher; the passes, too, are higher and more difficult to cross. Glaciers are rare and found only at high elevations. The main range serves as the boundary between Chile and Argentina and also is the drainage divide between rivers flowing to the Pacific and the Atlantic. The last of the southern series of volcanoes, Mount Tupungato (21,555 feet) is just east of Santiago, Chile. A line of lofty, snowcapped peaks rise between Tupungato and the mighty Mount Aconcagua. To the north of Aconcagua lies Mount Mercedario (22,211 feet), and between them are the high passes of Mount Espinacito (16,000 feet) and Mount Patos (12,825 feet). South of Anconcagua the passes include Pircas (16,960 feet), Bermejo (more than 10,000 feet), and Iglesia (13,400 feet). Farther north the passes are more numerous but higher. The peaks of Mounts Bonete, Ojos del Salado, and Pissis surpass 20,000 feet.

The peak of Tres Cruces (22,156 feet) at 27° S latitude marks the culmination of this part of the cordillera. To the north is found a transverse depression and the southern limit of the high plateau region called the Atacama Plateau in Argentina and Chile and the Altiplano in Bolivia and Peru. The cordillera grows wider as it advances into Bolivia and Peru, where the great plateau is bounded by two ranges: the Occidental and the Oriental.

Northward, to latitude 18° S, the peaks of El Cóndor, Sierra Nevada, Llullaillaco, Galán, and Antofalla all exceed 19,000 feet. The two main ranges and several volcanic secondary chains enclose depressions called salars because of the deposits of salts they contain; in northwestern Argentina, the Sierra de Calalaste encompasses the large Antofalla Salt Flat. Volcanoes of this zone occur mostly on a northerly line along the Cordillera Occidental as far as Misti Volcano (latitude 16° S) in Peru.

The western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental descend gradually to the Atacama Desert along the coast. At about 18° S the trend of the Cordillera Occidental changes to a northwesterly direction. The Cordillera Oriental to the east, lower and built on a broad bed of lava, is cut and denuded by rivers with steep gradients, fed by heavy rainfall. It has two sections. The southern portion is 150 miles wide and—with the exception of Chorolque Peak in Bolivia (18,414 feet)—of relatively low elevation. The northern section in Bolivia, called Cordillera Real, is narrow, with higher peaks and glaciers; the most important peaks, at over 21,000 feet, are Mounts Illimani and Illampu.

At about latitude 22° S the Cordillera Oriental penetrates into Bolivia and describes a wide semicircle to the north and then to the northwest; to the west the Altiplano reaches its broadest extent. The Altiplano—500 miles long and 80 miles wide—is one of the largest interior basins of the world. Varying in elevation from 11,200 to 12,800 feet, it has no drainage outlet to the ocean. Roughly in the center of the plateau is a great depression between the two cordilleras. Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable lake of the world (110 miles long), fills the northern part of the depression; the Desaguadero River flows south through the depression, draining Titicaca water into the smaller Lake Poopó.

As the Andes enter Peru, the Cordillera Occidental runs parallel to the coast, while the Cordillera Real from Bolivia ends in the rough mountain mass of the Vilcanota Knot at latitude 15° S. From this knot (nudo), two lofty and narrow chains emerge northward, the Cordilleras de Carabaya and Vilcanota, separated by a deep gorge; a third range, the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, appears to the west of these and northwest of the city of Cuzco. The three ranges are products of erosive action of rivers that have cut deep canyons between them. West of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, the Apurímac River runs in one of the deepest canyons of the Western Hemisphere. The city of Cuzco lies in the valley west of the Cordillera de Vilcanota at an altitude of nearly 11,000 feet.

The Peruvian Andes traditionally have been described as three cordilleras, which come together at the Vilcanota, Pasco, and Loja (Ecuador) knots. The Pasco Knot is a large, high plateau. To the west it is bounded by the Cordillera Huarochirí, on the west slope of which the Rímac River rises in a cluster of lakes fed by glaciers and descends rapidly to the ocean (15,700 feet in 60 miles). Ticlio Pass, at an altitude of some 15,800 feet, is used by a railway. Many small lakes and ponds are found on the knots, with Lake Junín (about 20 miles long) being the largest.

North of the Pasco Knot, three different ranges run along the plateau: the Cordilleras Occidental, Central, and Oriental. In the Cordillera Occidental, at latitude 10° S, the deep, narrow Huaylas Valley separates two ranges, Cordillera Blanca to the east and Cordillera Negra to the west; the Santa River runs between them and cuts Cordillera Negra to drain into the Pacific. Cordillera Blanca is a complex highland with permanently snowcapped peaks, some among the highest of the Andes (e.g., Mount Huascarán, at 22,205 feet). At times, the glaciers that rise there are broken off by earthquakes and rush down the slopes, demolishing vegetation and settlements in their paths. Cordillera Negra, so named because it is not covered with snow, is lower.

The two ranges join together at latitude 9° S. The Marañón River, which runs northward between the Cordilleras Occidental and Central at about 6° S, changes its direction of flow to the northeast, penetrating into a region of narrow transverse water gaps (pongos) that cut the cordillera to reach the Amazon basin. These include Rentema (about one and one-fourth miles long and 200 feet wide), Mayo, Mayasito, and Huarcaya gaps and—the most important—Manseriche Gap, which is seven miles long.

Between the Cordilleras Central and Oriental, the Huallaga River runs in a deep gorge with few small valleys; it cuts the eastern cordillera at Aguirre Gap (latitude 6° S). The Cordillera Oriental ends in the Amazon basin at 5° S.

The permanent snow line reaches an altitude of 19,000 feet in Mount Chanchani (about latitude 16° S) and declines to about 15,000 feet in Cordillera Blanca and to 13,000 feet on Mount Huascarán. Permanent snow is less common north of 8° S, the puna grasslands end, and the so-called humid puna, or jalca, begins. Mountains become wider and smoother in appearance, while vegetation changes to heathland and trees. The altitude diminishes, and passes are much lower, as at Porculla Pass (7,000 feet) east of Piura.

Physiography of the Northern Andes

A rough and eroded high mass of mountains called the Loja Knot (4° S) in southern Ecuador marks the transition between the Peruvian cordilleras and the Ecuadorian Andes. The Ecuadorian system consists of a long, narrow plateau running from south to north bordered by two mountain chains containing numerous high volcanoes. To the west, in the geologically recent and relatively low Cordillera Occidental, stands a line of 19 volcanoes, 7 of them exceeding 15,000 feet in elevation. The eastern border is the higher and older Cordillera Central, capped by a line of 20 volcanoes; some of these, such as Chimborazu Volcano (20,702 feet), have permanent snowcaps.

The outpouring of lava from these volcanoes has divided the central plateau into 10 major basins that are strung in beadlike fashion between the two cordilleras. These basins and their adjacent slopes, which are intensively cultivated, contain roughly half of Ecuador’s population.

A third cordillera has been identified in the eastern jungle of Ecuador and has been named the Cordillera Oriental. The range appears to be an ancient alluvial formation that has been divided by rivers and heavy rainfall into a number of mountain masses. Such masses as the cordilleras of Guacamayo, Galeras, and Lumbaquí are isolated or form irregular short chains and are covered by luxuriant forest. Altitudes do not exceed 7,900 feet, except at Cordilleras del Cóndor (13,000 feet) and Mount Pax (11,000 feet).

North of the boundary with Colombia is a group of high, snowcapped volcanoes (Azufral, Cumbal, Chiles) known as the Huaca Knot. Farther to the north is the great massif of the Pasto Mountains (latitude 1°–2° N), which is the most important Colombian physiographic complex and the source of many of the country’s rivers.

Three distinct ranges, the Cordilleras Occidental, Central, and Oriental, run northward. The Cordillera Occidental, parallel to the coast and moderately high, reaches an elevation of nearly 13,000 feet at Mount Paramillo before descending in three smaller ranges into the lowlands of northern Colombia. The Cordillera Central is the highest (average altitude of almost 10,000 feet) but also the shortest range of Colombian Andes, stretching some 400 miles before its most northerly spurs disappear at about latitude 8° N. Most of the volcanoes of the zone are in this range, including Mounts Tolima (17,105 feet), Ruiz (17,717 feet), and Huila (18,865 feet). At about latitude 6° N, the range widens into a plateau on which Medellín is situated.

Between the Cordilleras Central and Occidental is a great depression, the Patía-Cauca valley, divided into three longitudinal plains. The southernmost is the narrow valley of the Patía River, the waters of which flow to the Pacific. The middle plain is the highest in elevation (8,200 feet) and constitutes the divide of the other two. The northern plain, the largest (15 miles wide and 125 miles long), is the valley of Cauca River, which drains northward to the Magdalena River.

The Cordillera Oriental trends slightly to the northeast and is the widest and the longest of the three. The average altitude is 7,900 to 8,900 feet. North of latitude 3° N the cordillera widens and after a small depression rises into the Sumapaz Uplands, which range in elevation from 10,000 to 13,000 feet. North of the Sumapaz Upland the range divides into two, enclosing a large plain 125 miles wide and 200 miles long, often interrupted by small transverse chains that form several upland basins called sabanas that contain about a third of Colombia’s population. The city of Bogotá is on the largest and most populated of these sabanas; other important cities on sabanas are Chiquinquirá, Tunja, and Sogamoso. East of Honda (5° N) the cordillera divides into a series of abrupt parallel chains running to the north-northeast; among them the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy (18,022 feet) is high enough to have snowcapped peaks.

Farther north the central ranges of the Cordillera Central come to an end, but the flanking chains continue and diverge to the north and northeast. The westernmost of these chains is the Sierra de Ocaña, which on its northeastern side includes the Sierra de Perijá; the latter range forms a portion of the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela and extends as far north as latitude 11° N in La Guajira Peninsula. The eastern chain bends to the east and enters Venezuela as the Cordillera de Mérida. On the Caribbean coast just west of the Sierra de Perijá stands the isolated, triangular Santa Marta Massif, which rises abruptly from the coast to snowcapped peaks of 18,947 feet; geologically, however, the Santa Marta Massif is not part of the Andes.

The Venezuelan Andes are represented by the Cordillera de Mérida (280 miles long, 50 to 90 miles wide, and about 10,000 feet in elevation), which extends in a northeasterly direction to the city of Barquisimeto, where it ends. The cordillera is a great uplifted axis where erosion has uncovered granite and gneiss rocks but where the northwestern and southeastern flanks remain covered by sediments; it consists of numerous chains with snow-covered summits separated by longitudinal and transverse depressions—Sierras Tovar, Nevada, Santo Domingo, de la Culata, Trujillo, and others. The range forms the northwestern limit of the Orinoco River basin, beyond which water flows to the Caribbean. North of Barquisimeto, the Sierra Falcón and Cordillera del Litoral (called in Venezuela the Sistema Andino) do not belong to the Andes but rather to the Guiana system.

Additional Information

The Andes Mountains are such a fascinating and important part of South America’s geography and history. They are home to a unique ecosystem, rich in mineral resources, and provide freshwater for millions of people.

Flora and Fauna in The Andes Mountains

The Andes Mountains are also home to a wide variety of animal species, many of which are found nowhere else in the world.

Due to the altitude range of the Andes, from sea level to over 6,900 meters, the animal species found in the mountains are adapted to different climates and environments. Here are some of the most notable animal species that can be found in the Andes Mountains:

1. Vicuña

The Vicuña is a relative of the llama and is found in the high Andes Mountains of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. They are known for their fine wool, which is used to make high-quality clothing.

2. Andean Condor

The Andean Condor is one of the largest flying birds in the world and can be found throughout the Andes Mountains. They are scavengers and feed on carrion.

3. Spectacled Bear

The Spectacled Bear is the only bear species found in South America, and they are native to the Andes Mountains. They are named for the light-colored fur around their eyes that gives the appearance of wearing spectacles.

4. Puma

The Puma, also known as the mountain lion or cougar, is a large carnivorous cat found throughout the Andes Mountains. They are solitary animals and hunt prey such as deer, guanacos, and vicuñas.

5. Andean Cat

The Andean Cat is a small wild cat found in the high Andes Mountains of Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. They are one of the rarest cat species in the world and are listed as endangered.

6. Chinchilla

The Chinchilla is a small rodent found in the Andes Mountains of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. They are known for their soft, dense fur, which is used for clothing and accessories.

7. Andean math-of-the-rock

The Andean math-of-the-rock is a brightly colored bird that is found in the cloud forests of the Andes Mountains. They are known for their bright red feathers.

8. Alpaca

The Alpaca is a domesticated camelid that is found throughout the Andes Mountains. They are bred for their wool, which is used to make clothing, blankets, and other textiles.

9. Giant Otter

The Giant Otter is the largest otter species in the world and can be found in the rivers and lakes of the Andes Mountains. They are highly social and live in family groups.

10, Mountain Viscacha

The Mountain Viscacha is a rodent found in the high Andes Mountains of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. They are known for their long, bushy tails and are sometimes called “Andean rabbits” due to their resemblance to rabbits.

Many of these incredible species are adapted to the unique environment of the Andes, and some are found nowhere else in the world. Protecting the habitats and ecosystems of these animals is crucial for maintaining the biodiversity of the Andes Mountains.

Hi,

#9821.

Hi,

2670.

2460) Indian Elephant

Gist

Indian elephants are smaller than their African relatives but are still among the largest land animals on earth. They have a rounded head, smaller ears, and a long trunk used for feeding, drinking, and even social gestures.

Indian elephants are a subspecies of Asian elephants native to the Indian subcontinent that represent around 60% of all Asian elephants. They are highly intelligent animals with complex social structures that display emotional intelligence.

Summary

Indian elephants may spend up to 19 hours a day feeding and they can produce about 220 pounds of dung per day while wandering over an area that can cover up to 125 square miles. This helps to disperse germinating seeds. They feed mainly on grasses, but large amounts of tree bark, roots, leaves, and small stems are also eaten. Cultivated crops such as bananas, rice, and sugarcane are favored foods as well. Since they need to drink at least once a day, these elephants are always close to a source of fresh water.

Indian elephants are a subspecies of Asian elephants native to the Indian subcontinent that represent around 60% of all Asian elephants. They are highly intelligent animals with complex social structures that display emotional intelligence. The females live in tight-knit family groups led by elderly matriarchs, while males typically live alone.

Indian elephants are similar to their Asian elephant cousins, the Sumatran and Sri Lankan elephants, but are distinguishable from their African cousins by their smaller, more rounded ears and their smaller bodies. Mature Indian elephants are two to three metres (6.6 to 9.8 feet) tall at the shoulders and weigh anywhere from 2,000 to 5,000 kilograms (2.25 to 5.5 tonnes), making them up to one metre smaller and 3,000 kilograms lighter than their African counterparts. Indian elephants also have thinner skin and less hair.

Indian elephants are herbivores and spend up to 19 hours a day eating as much as 136 kilograms (300 pounds) of fruit, grasses, roots, and bark. They are migratory animals with large home ranges, meaning they wander across their forest habitat searching for food, water, and mates.

These habits make them a keystone species—one on which other animals rely for their survival—as they disperse seeds through their faeces and promote vegetation growth by creating clearings and trails that allow more light to reach the forest floor. In short, they play a vital role in the ecosystems in which they live, helping to maintain the biodiversity and ecological health of these regions. However, due to threats like habitat loss and poaching, Indian elephant populations are declining rapidly.

What is an Indian elephant's scientific name?

The scientific name for the Indian elephant is Elephas maximus indicus, roughly translating to ‘greatest elephant from India’. It is one of three subspecies of Asian elephants, the two other being the Sumatran and Sri Lankan elephants, known scientifically as Elephas maximus sumatrensis and Elephas maximus maximus.

Are Indian elephants endangered?

The IUCN Red List has listed Indian elephants as endangered since 1986 because their population and the quality of their habitat are in decline. The number of Asian elephants overall has decreased by 50% over the last three generations, while the population size of Indian elephants has decreased by 11% in just 30 years. These large mammals face human-caused threats, including habitat loss and fragmentation, as well as poaching and human-animal conflict.

Where do Indian elephants live?

Indian elephants are the only Asian elephants that live in mainland Asia. Here, they inhabit a range of different habitats, including dry-thorn forests, moist and dry deciduous forests, tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, as well as cultivated and secondary forests.

They migrate throughout the year in search of vegetation and water, though they do have home ranges too. The size of a range varies based on the number of elephants in the area, as well as the quality and availability of food.

Details

The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) is one of three extant recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, native to mainland Asia. The species is smaller than the African elephant species with a convex back and the highest body point on its head. The species exhibits significant sexual dimorphism with a male reaching an average shoulder height of about 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and weighing 4,000 kg (8,800 lb) whereas a female reaches an average shoulder height of about 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) and weighs 2,700 kg (6,000 lb). It has a broader skull with a concave forehead, two large laterally folded ears and a large trunk. It has smooth grey skin with four large legs and a long tail.

The Indian elephant is native to mainland Asia with nearly three-fourth of the population found in India. The species is also found in other countries of the Indian subcontinent including Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar and South East Asian countries including Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam with small populations in China. It inhabits grasslands, dry deciduous, moist deciduous, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests across the range. The species is classified as a megaherbivore and consume up to 150 kg (330 lb) of plant matter per day. They consume a variety of diet depending on the habitat and seasons and might include leaves and twigs of fresh foliage, thorn-bearing shoots, flowering plants, fruits and grass.

Since 1986, the Asian elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the wild population has declined by at least 50% over the last three elephant generations. The species is threatened by environmental degradation, habitat loss and fragmentation. Poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious threat in some parts of Asia. Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India to protect elephant habitats and population.

The Indian elephant is a cultural symbol throughout its range and appears in various religious traditions and mythologies. The elephants are treated positively and is revered as a form of Ganesha in Hinduism. It has been designated the national heritage animal in India and is the national animal of Thailand and Laos.

Taxonomy

The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) is one of three extant recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant. Carl Linnaeus proposed the scientific name Elephas maximus in 1758 for an elephant from Ceylon. Elephas indicus was proposed by Georges Cuvier in 1798, who described an elephant from India. Frederick Nutter Chasen classified all three as subspecies of the Asian elephant in 1940.

Description

In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than African elephant. Its back is convex or level with the highest body point on its head. The species exhibits significant sexual dimorphism with a male reaching an average shoulder height of about 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and weighing up to 4,000 kg (8,800 lb) whereas a female reaches an average shoulder height of about 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) and weighs up to 2,700 kg (6,000 lb), with specimens rarely exceeding 3.2 m (10 ft) and 5,400 kg (11,900 lb) in males and 2.54 m (8 ft 4 in) 4,160 kg (9,170 lb) in females. The largest Indian elephant was 3.43 m (11.3 ft) high at the shoulder. On average, it measures 5.5–6.5 m (18–21 ft) in length including the trunk.

It has a broader skull with a concave forehead and two dorsal bulges on the top. Two large laterally folded ears and a large trunk with one finger-like process are attached to the head. It has 20 pairs of ribs and 34 vertebrae. There are four large legs which are almost straight with broader toes and with five nail like structures on each foreleg and four on each of the hind-legs. The large legs help support the larger weight for longer periods without spending much energy with the broad feet helping to cushion against hard surfaces. It has a long tail measuring on average 1.2–1.5 m (3 ft 11 in – 4 ft 11 in) in length. The skin color is generally grey and lighter than that of E. m. maximus but darker than that of E. m. sumatranus. The skin is generally smoother than that of the African species and might consist of smaller patches of white depigmentation or grey spots. The body is covered by brownish to reddish hairs which reduce and darken with age. The female is usually smaller than the male with short or no tusks. There are about 29 narrow cheek teeth.

Additional Information

The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) is one of the most respected animals in India. For centuries, it has been a part of our culture, mythology, and daily life. Worshipped as a symbol of strength and wisdom, elephants are seen in temples, festivals, and folklore across the country. But beyond culture, they also play a vital role in the forests dispersing seeds, clearing vegetation, and helping new life grow.

How to Identify an Indian Elephant

Indian elephants are smaller than their African relatives but are still among the largest land animals on earth. They have a rounded head, smaller ears, and a long trunk used for feeding, drinking, and even social gestures. Unlike African elephants, where both males and females grow tusks, in India only some males have tusks. The tuskless males and females are called makhnas.

Size, Weight, and Appearance

Adult males: 8-10 feet tall at the shoulder, weighing 2,000-5,000 kg
Females: 7-9 feet tall, slightly smaller than males
Skin: Dark grey to dusty brown, often covered with mud or dust (nature’s sunscreen)

These gentle giants love dust baths, which not only keep them cool but also protect them from insect bites.

Birth and Life Cycle

Elephants have one of the longest pregnancies of any land animal about 22 months. A calf weighs close to 100 kg at birth and is cared for by the entire herd. These social bonds are strong, and young elephants rarely leave the safety of their mothers and aunts.

In the wild, Indian elephants can live 60-70 years. In captivity, their lifespan often depends on how well they are cared for.

Key Characteristics of Indian Elephant

Feature  :  Description
Scientific Name  :  Elephas maximus indicus
Height  :  2 to 3.5 m (6.6 to 11.5 ft) at the shoulder
Weight  :  2,000 to 5,500 kg (4,400 to 12,100 lbs)
Lifespan  :  60 to 70 years in the wild
Habitat  :  Grasslands, dry deciduous, moist deciduous, evergreen, and semi-evergreen forests.
Distribution  :  Found in India and other countries of mainland Asia, including Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, and others.
Diet  :  Herbivore. Consumes up to 150 kg (330 lbs) of vegetation per day.
Social Structure  :  Live in matriarchal herds led by the oldest and most experienced female.
Conservation Status  :  Endangered (IUCN Red List).

What Do They Eat?

An adult elephant can eat over 150 kg of food a day grasses, leaves, bark, and seasonal fruits. They drink more than 100 liters of water daily. Despite their bulk, they can run up to 40 km/h if threatened.

Where Do Indian Elephants Live?

Indian elephants prefer dense forests, grasslands, and river valleys. They never stray far from water.

Main Elephant Regions in India

Southern India – Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Central India – Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha
Northeast India – Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya
Northern India – Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh

Together, these regions form the last strongholds of the Indian elephant, where conservation efforts are vital to keep their ancient migration routes alive.

Best Places to See Elephants in India

Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) – Famous for large herds crossing forest roads.
Kaziranga National Park (Assam) – Ideal for spotting elephants along with rhinos.
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala) – Known for elephant sightings near the lake.
Bandipur & Nagarhole (Karnataka) – Rich elephant corridors with strong protection.

These parks are also popular for elephant safaris, though ethical wildlife viewing always prefers observing them in the wild, not in captivity.

Migration and Movement Patterns

Indian elephants travel long distances as the seasons change, mainly in search of food and water. Some herds follow the same routes for generations, guided by the memory of matriarchs who know the land well.

Major Elephant Migration Regions in India

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) – One of the most important elephant landscapes with famous corridors like Mudumalai-Bandipur-Wayanad-Nagarhole.
Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong (Assam) – Elephants move between grasslands and nearby hills depending on the season.
Dooars and North Bengal (West Bengal) – Regular movements between forests of Bhutan foothills and Indian reserves.
Rajaji-Corbett (Uttarakhand) – Known for elephants moving between Shivalik hills and Terai grasslands.
Eastern India (Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh) – Seasonal migrations often bring elephants close to farmlands.

Wildlife corridors in these regions are critical, as they connect fragmented forests and reduce conflict. Without them, elephants are forced to cross farms, roads, and railway lines, which increases the risk of accidents and human-elephant conflict.

Behavior and Social Life

Elephants live in matriarch-led herds, usually made up of females and calves. Males leave the group when they mature and either live alone or in small bachelor groups.

Daily Routine

* Foraging for 12-18 hours a day
* Bathing and cooling off in rivers or mud pools
* Walking long distances to find food and water
* Resting and social bonding

Communication

They “talk” through rumbles, trumpets, body language, and even vibrations felt through the ground. Elephants are known to mourn their dead, showing remarkable emotional intelligence.

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#9820.

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2669.

2406) Andrew Huxley

Gist:

Work

The nervous system in people and animals consists of many different cells. In cells, signals are conveyed by small electrical currents and by chemical substances. By measuring changes in electrical charges in a very large nerve fiber from a species of octopus, Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin were able to show how nerve impulses are exchanged between cells. In 1952 they could demonstrate that a fundamental mechanism involves the passage of sodium and potassium ions in opposite directions in and out through the cell wall, which gives rise to electrical charges.

Summary

Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley (born November 22, 1917, Hampstead, London, England—died May 30, 2012, Cambridge) was an English physiologist, cowinner (with Sir Alan Hodgkin and Sir John Carew Eccles) of the 1963 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. His researches centred on nerve and muscle fibres and dealt particularly with the chemical phenomena involved in the transmission of nerve impulses. He was knighted in 1974 and was president of the Royal Society from 1980 to 1985.

Andrew Fielding, a grandson of the biologist T.H. Huxley and son of the biographer and man of letters Leonard Huxley, received his M.A. from Trinity College, Cambridge, where later, from 1941 to 1960, he was a fellow and then director of studies, a demonstrator, an assistant director of research, and finally a reader in experimental biophysics in the Department of Physiology. In 1960 he went to University College, London, first as Jodrell professor and then, from 1969, as Royal Society research professor, in the Department of Physiology. Huxley and Hodgkin’s researches were concerned largely with studying the exchange of sodium and potassium ions that causes a brief reversal in a nerve cell’s electrical polarization; this phenomenon, known as an action potential, results in the transmission of an impulse along a nerve fibre. Apart from the researches directly mentioned in the Nobel citation, Huxley made contributions of fundamental importance to knowledge of the process of contraction by a muscle fibre. He published many important papers in periodicals, particularly in the Journal of Physiology. His Sherrington Lectures were published as Reflections on Muscle (1980).

Details

Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley (22 November 1917 – 30 May 2012) was an English physiologist and biophysicist. He was born into the prominent Huxley family. After leaving Westminster School in central London, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, on a scholarship, after which he joined Alan Hodgkin to study nerve impulses. Their eventual discovery of the basis for propagation of nerve impulses (called an action potential) earned them the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1963. They made their discovery from the giant axon of the Atlantic squid. Soon after the outbreak of the Second World War, Huxley was recruited by the British Anti-Aircraft Command and later transferred to the Admiralty. After the war he resumed research at the University of Cambridge, where he developed interference microscopy that would be suitable for studying muscle fibres.

In 1952, he was joined by a German physiologist Rolf Niedergerke. Together they discovered in 1954 the mechanism of muscle contraction, popularly called the "sliding filament theory", which is the foundation of our modern understanding of muscle mechanics. In 1960 he became head of the Department of Physiology at University College London. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1955, and President in 1980. The Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal in 1973 for his collective contributions to the understanding of nerve impulses and muscle contraction. He was conferred a Knight Bachelor by the Queen in 1974, and was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1983. He was a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, until his death.

Career

Having entered Cambridge in 1935, Huxley graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1938. In 1939, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin returned from the US to take up a fellowship at Trinity College, and Huxley became one of his postgraduate students. Hodgkin was interested in the transmission of electrical signals along nerve fibres. Beginning in 1935 in Cambridge, he had made preliminary measurements on frog sciatic nerves suggesting that the accepted view of the nerve as a simple, elongated battery was flawed. Hodgkin invited Huxley to join him researching the problem. The work was experimentally challenging. One major problem was that the small size of most neurons made it extremely difficult to study them using the techniques of the time. They overcame this by working at the Marine Biological Association laboratory in Plymouth using the giant axon of the longfin inshore squid (Doryteuthis (formerly Loligo) pealeii), which have the largest neurons known. The experiments were still extremely challenging as the nerve impulses only last a few milliseconds, during which time they needed to measure the changing electrical potential at different points along the nerve. Using equipment largely of their own construction and design, including one of the earliest applications of a technique of electrophysiology known as the voltage clamp, they were able to record ionic currents. In 1939, they jointly published a short paper in Nature reporting on the work done in Plymouth and announcing their achievement of recording action potentials from inside a nerve fibre.

Then World War II broke out, and their research was abandoned. Huxley was recruited by the British Anti-Aircraft Command, where he worked on radar control of anti-aircraft guns. Later he was transferred to the Admiralty to do work on naval gunnery, and worked in a team led by Patrick Blackett. Hodgkin, meanwhile, was working on the development of radar at the Air Ministry. When he had a problem concerning a new type of gun sight, he contacted Huxley for advice. Huxley did a few sketches, borrowed a lathe and produced the necessary parts.

Huxley was elected to a research fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1941. In 1946, with the war ended, he was able to take this up and to resume his collaboration with Hodgkin on understanding how nerves transmit signals. Continuing their work in Plymouth, they were, within six years, able to solve the problem using equipment they built themselves. The solution was that nerve impulses, or action potentials, do not travel down the core of the fiber, but rather along the outer membrane of the fiber as cascading waves of sodium ions diffusing inward on a rising pulse and potassium ions diffusing out on a falling edge of a pulse. In 1952, they published their theory of how action potentials are transmitted in a joint paper, in which they also describe one of the earliest computational models in biochemistry. This model forms the basis of most of the models used in neurobiology during the following four decades.

In 1952, having completed work on action potentials, Huxley was teaching physiology at Cambridge and became interested in another difficult, unsolved problem: how does muscle contract? To make progress on understanding the function of muscle, new ways of observing how the network of filaments behave during contraction were needed. Prior to the war, he had been working on a preliminary design for interference microscopy, which at the time he believed to be original, though it turned out to have been tried 50 years before and abandoned. He, however, was able to make interference microscopy work and to apply it to the problem of muscle contraction with great effect. He was able to view muscle contraction with greater precision than conventional microscopes, and to distinguish types of fiber more easily. By 1953, with the assistance of Rolf Niedergerke, he began to find the features of muscle movement. Around that time, Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson came to a similar observation. Authored in pairs, their papers were simultaneously published in the 22 May 1954 issue of Nature. Thus the four people introduced what is called the sliding filament theory of muscle contractions. Huxley synthesized his findings, and the work of colleagues, into a detailed description of muscle structure and how muscle contraction occurs and generates force that he published in 1957. In 1966 his team provided the proof of the theory, and has remained the basis of modern understanding of muscle physiology.

In 1953, Huxley worked at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, as a Lalor Scholar. He gave the Herter Lectures at Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1959 and the Jesup Lectures at Columbia University in 1964. In 1961 he lectured on neurophysiology at Kiev University as part of an exchange scheme between British and Russian professors.

He was an editor of the Journal of Physiology from 1950 to 1957 and also of the Journal of Molecular Biology. In 1955, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and served on the Council of the Royal Society from 1960 to 1962.

Huxley held college and university posts in Cambridge until 1960, when he became head of the Department of Physiology at University College London. In addition to his administrative and teaching duties, he continued to work actively on muscle contraction, and also made theoretical contributions to other work in the department, such as that on animal reflectors. In 1963, he was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his part in discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms of the nerve cell. In 1969 he was appointed to a Royal Society Research Professorship, which he held in the Department of Physiology at University College London.

In 1980, Huxley was elected as President of the Royal Society, a post he held until 1985. In his Presidential Address in 1981, he chose to defend the Darwinian explanation of evolution, as his ancestor, T. H. Huxley had in 1860. Whereas T. H. Huxley was defying the bishops of his day, Sir Andrew was countering new theories of periods of accelerated change. In 1983, he defended the Society's decision to elect Margaret Thatcher as a fellow on the ground of her support for science even after 44 fellows had signed a letter of protest.

In 1984, he was elected Master of Trinity, succeeding his longtime collaborator, Sir Alan Hodgkin. His appointment broke the tradition that the office of Master of Trinity alternates between a scientist and an arts man. He was Master until 1990 and was fond of reminding interviewers that Trinity College had more Nobel Prize winners than did the whole of France. He maintained up to his death his position as a fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge, teaching in physiology, natural sciences and medicine. He was also a fellow of Imperial College London in 1980.

From his experimental work with Hodgkin, Huxley developed a set of differential equations that provided a mathematical explanation for nerve impulses—the "action potential". This work provided the foundation for all of the current work on voltage-sensitive membrane channels, which are responsible for the functioning of animal nervous systems. Quite separately, he developed the mathematical equations for the operation of myosin "cross-bridges" that generate the sliding forces between actin and myosin filaments, which cause the contraction of skeletal muscles. These equations presented an entirely new paradigm for understanding muscle contraction, which has been extended to provide understanding of almost all of the movements produced by cells above the level of bacteria. Together with the Swiss physiologist Robert Stämpfli, he evidenced the existence of saltatory conduction in myelinated nerve fibres.

Awards and honours

Huxley, Alan Hodgkin and John Eccles jointly won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane". Huxley and Hodgkin won the prize for experimental and mathematical work on the process of nerve action potentials, the electrical impulses that enable the activity of an organism to be coordinated by a central nervous system. Eccles had made important discoveries on synaptic transmission.

Huxley was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1955, and was awarded its Copley Medal in 1973 "in recognition of his outstanding studies on the mechanisms of the nerve impulse and of activation of muscular contraction." Huxley was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1961. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II on 12 November 1974. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1975 and the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1979. He was appointed to the Order of Merit on 11 November 1983. In 1976–77, he was President of the British Science Association and from 1980 to 1985 he served as President of the Royal Society. In 1986 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering then known as the Fellowship of Engineering.

Huxley's portrait by David Poole hangs in Trinity College's collection.

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