Math Is Fun Forum

Q: Why did the Fungi leave the party?
A: There wasn't mushroom.
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Q: Why did the Mushroom get invited to all the parties?
A: 'Cuz he's a fungi!
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Q: Why do Toadstools grow so close together?
A: They don't need Mushroom.
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Q: What would a mushroom car say?
A: Shroom shroom!
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Q: Which vegetable goes best with jacket potatoes?
A: Button Mushrooms.
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Mount Kilimanjaro

Gist

Mount Kilimanjaro, located in Tanzania, is Africa's highest peak (5,895 meters/19,341 feet) and the world's tallest free-standing mountain. It is a dormant stratovolcano with three volcanic cones—Kibo, Mawenzi, and Shira—and is famous for its snow-capped peak and five diverse ecological zones. Climbing is a popular non-technical trek, typically taking 5-9 days.

Kilimanjaro is famous as Africa's highest peak, the world's highest free-standing mountain, and a bucket-list destination for trekkers, known for its iconic snow-capped summit, diverse ecosystems, and status as one of the Seven Summits challenge. Its fame comes from being an accessible yet challenging climb, offering a unique journey through five distinct climate zones, making it a symbol of adventure and a visible indicator of climate change due to its shrinking glaciers. 

Summary

Mount Kilimanjaro is a large dormant volcano in Tanzania. It is the highest mountain in Africa and the highest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world, at 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also the highest volcano in the Eastern Hemisphere and the fourth most prominent peak on Earth.

Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of the Chagga Kingdoms until their abolition in 1963 by Julius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean "mountain of greatness" or "unclimbable". Although described in classical sources, German missionary Johannes Rebmann is credited as the first European to report the mountain's existence, in 1848. After several European attempts, Hans Meyer reached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1899.

The mountain was incorporated into Kilimanjaro National Park in 1973. As one of the Seven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major hiking and climbing destination. There are seven established routes to Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk of altitude sickness.

One of several mountains arising from the East African Rift, Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes host montane forests and cloud forests. Multiple species are endemic to Mount Kilimanjaro, including the giant groundsel Dendrosenecio kilimanjari. The mountain possesses a large ice cap and the largest glaciers in Africa, including Credner Glacier, Furtwängler Glacier, and the Rebmann Glacier. This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century.

Details

Mount Kilimanjaro is Africa’s tallest mountain and the world’s largest free-standing mountain.

Located in Tanzania, Mount Kilimanjaro is Africa’s tallest mountain at about 5,895 meters (19,340 feet). It is the largest free-standing mountain rise in the world, meaning it is not part of a mountain range.

Also called a stratovolcano (a term for a very large volcano made of ash, lava and rock), Kilimanjaro is made up of three cones: Kibo, Mawenzi and Shira. Kibo is the summit of the mountain and the tallest of the three volcanic formations. While Mawenzi and Shira are extinct, Kibo is considered dormant and could possibly erupt again. Scientists estimate that the last time it erupted was 360,000 years ago. The highest point on Kibo’s crater rim is called Uhuru, the Swahili word for “freedom.”

No one knows how Kilimanjaro got its name. It may come from the Swahili word Kilima (meaning “mountain”) and the KiChagga word Njaro (meaning “shining” or “whiteness”); the mountain is known for its snow-capped peak. Some local people living in the foothills of the mountain, including the Chagga and the Maasai, view it as the seat of God.

Unfortunately, the white snow that the mountain is named for may soon disappear. Over the last hundred years, all of Kilimanjaro’s glaciers have begun to retreat. Some have vanished altogether. Scientists have studied satellite images and learned that Kilimanjaro has lost more than 90 percent of its ice since 1900. Many experts are studying the causes of this catastrophic melt.

The people who live in the vicinity of Kilimanjaro are an important part of the mountain’s history. In 1889, local climber Yohani Kinyala Lauwo (also known as Mzee Lauwo) guided German geographer Hans Meyer and Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller to the Kilimanjaro summit. Lauwo then became the first Tanzanian to reach the peak at the age of 18. Purtscheller and Meyer were the first Europeans to summit. Lauwo was a member of the Chagga tribe. The Chagga have lived on Kilimanjaro’s slopes for centuries. Lauwo went on to guide climbers to Kilimanjaro’s summit for more than 50 years, dying at the age of 125.

Kilimanjaro continues to be a popular hiking spot. This is partly because the hiking routes do not require as much equipment or experience as mountains of similar heights. Tens of thousands of climbers ascend the mountain each year. The climb is still dangerous, however, because of the risk of altitude sickness. Climbers can experience altitude sickness if they ascend too quickly, and it can be deadly if not treated right away.

In 1973, the mountain and its six surrounding forest corridors were named Kilimanjaro National Park. The park was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site in 1987. These measures can help protect the area’s unique environment. A variety of animals live in the area surrounding the mountain, including the blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis).

Additional Information

Kilimanjaro is a volcanic massif in northeastern Tanzania, near the Kenya border. Its central cone, Kibo, rises to 19,340 feet (5,895 metres) and is the highest point in Africa. Kilimanjaro lies about 100 miles (160 km) east of the East African Rift System and about 140 miles (225 km) south of Nairobi, Kenya. The massif extends approximately east-west for 50 miles (80 km) and consists of three principal extinct volcanoes: Kibo (centre), Mawensi (east), and Shira (west). Kibo, the youngest and highest, retains the form of a typical volcanic cone and crater and is linked by a 7-mile (11-km) saddle at about 15,000 feet (4,500 metres) with Mawensi (16,893 feet [5,149 metres]), which is the older core of a former summit. Shira ridge (13,000 feet [3,962 metres]) is a remnant of an earlier crater. Below the saddle, Kilimanjaro slopes in a typical volcanic curve to the plains below, which lie at an elevation of about 3,300 feet (1,000 metres). The breathtaking snow-clad dome of Kibo contains a caldera (crater) on its southern side that is 1.2 miles (2 km) across and some 980 feet (300 metres) deep, with an inner cone that displays residual volcanic activity. Mawensi’s cone is highly eroded, jagged, and precipitous and is cleft east and west by gorges. Only Kibo retains a permanent ice cap. Mawensi has semipermanent ice patches and substantial seasonal snow.

The mountain and its surrounding forests were designated a game reserve in the early part of the 20th century. In 1973 Mount Kilimanjaro National Park was established to protect the mountain above the tree line as well as the six forest corridors that extend downslope through the montane forest belt. The park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987.

Kilimanjaro has a succession of vegetation zones consisting of (from base to summit) the semiarid scrub of the surrounding plateau; the massif’s cultivated, well-watered southern slopes; dense cloud forest; open moorland; alpine desert; and moss and lichen communities. Two notable species that grow in the moorlands are the giant lobelia (Lobelia deckenii) and the giant groundsel (Senecio johnstonii cottonii). The forests of the southern slopes and surrounding areas are home to elephants, buffalo, and eland (oxlike antelopes). Smaller mammals inhabiting the forests include black and white colobus monkeys, blue monkeys, and bushbuck and duikers (small African antelopes). The forests also host a rich variety of birdlife, including the rare Abbot’s starling.

The Kilimanjaro formations became known to Europeans when they were reached in 1848 by the German missionaries Johannes Rebmann and Johann Ludwig Krapf, although the news that there were snow-capped mountains so close to the Equator was not believed until more than a decade later. The Kibo summit was first reached in 1889 by the German geographer Hans Meyer and the Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller. The Kilimanjaro region is one of Tanzania’s leading producers of mild coffee, barley, wheat, and sugar; other crops include sisal, corn (maize), beans, bananas, wattle bark (Acacia), cotton, pyrethrum, and potatoes. The region is populated by the Chaga (Chagga), Pare, Kahe, and Mbugu peoples. The town of Moshi, at the southern foot of Kilimanjaro, is the chief trading centre and base for ascent. As Kibo’s peak can be reached without the aid of mountaineering equipment, thousands of hikers attempt the ascent each year.

Q: What kind of witch crafts food?
A: A sand-witch.
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Q: How does butter play baseball?
A: It butters up.
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Q: Why do they call it Fast Food?
A: Because if you don't eat it really fast, you might actually taste it.
* * *
Q: What happens when you use pickles for a ping pong game?
A: You get a volley of the Dills.
* * *

Detergent

Gist

A detergent is a cleaning agent, often called a "surfactant," that uses molecules with both water-loving (polar) heads and oil-loving (non-polar) tails to lift dirt, grease, and oil from surfaces, suspending them in water so they can be rinsed away. Unlike traditional soaps, detergents are synthetic, work effectively in hard water, and are formulated into various products like laundry liquids, dishwasher tabs, and shampoos, containing additional ingredients for foaming, softening, or scent

Detergent products on the market can be categorized into powder detergents, liquid detergents, detergent bars, detergent pods, etc. The primary purpose is to remove dirt, stains, sweat, oils, pathogens, and other contaminants from fabrics, leaving them clean, fresh, and often pleasantly scented.

Summary

A detergent is a product for cleaning that contains surfactants plus other components. Detergents comprise surfactants as main functional components to remove hydrophobic grease or dirt by dispersing them in water. They often further comprise water (to facilitate application), builders (to soften water), enzymes (for breaking down proteins, fats, or starches), and dyes or fragrances (to improve the user's sensory experience).

Common surfactants used in detergents are alkylbenzene sulfonates, which are soap-like compounds that are more soluble than soap in hard water, because the polar sulfonate is less likely than the polar carboxylate of soap to bind to calcium and other ions found in hard water.

Definitions

The word detergent is derived from the Latin adjective detergens, from the verb detergere, meaning to wipe or polish off. Detergent can be defined as a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing properties when in dilute solutions. However, conventionally, detergent is used to mean synthetic cleaning compounds as opposed to soap (a salt of the natural fatty acid), even though soap is also a detergent in the true sense. In domestic contexts, the term detergent refers to household cleaning products such as laundry detergent or dish detergent, which are in fact complex mixtures of different compounds, not all of which are by themselves detergents. Detergency is the ability to remove unwanted substances termed 'soils' from a substrate (e.g., clothing).

Details

Key Takeaways:

* Laundry detergents clean fabrics. Surfactants are the key ingredient that allows detergents to remove dirt and stains by interacting with both oil and water.
* Modern detergents contain a mixture of surfactants, enzymes and other ingredients to tackle various stains and fabric care needs.
* The choice between powder and liquid detergents often comes down to personal preference, although environmental considerations and packaging waste are increasingly important factors for consumers.

Nothing beats the feeling of putting on a clean T-shirt, especially after a shower. It leaves you feeling fresh and ready to take on the day. And where do these clean T-shirts come from? Ah, yes -- the laundry, that household chore that never seems to go off of your to-do list. Even the numbers agree: The average American family does about 300 loads of laundry per year [source: Wall Street Journal].

You may find yourself constantly putting clothes and sheets in the wash because, put simply, people are dirty. We sweat, shed skin cells and come into contact with food, dirt and many more particles every day. Consequently, we need a way to effectively get clothes and fabrics clean to maintain personal hygiene and keep up the appearance of garments. But what exactly is going on in that washing machine to get our clothes and fabrics clean? The secret is laundry detergent.

Prior to the invention of laundry detergents, Americans used soap flakes to wash clothes. However, in the 1930s, the first laundry detergent, Dreft by Procter & Gamble, hit the market. Later, in 1943, Procter & Gamble produced Tide, which could get out tougher stains due to the use of some very unique chemical ingredients. Since the 1930s and 1940s, laundry detergent has become a household necessity that is used around the world to clean fabrics. So how exactly do laundry detergents get your clothes clean? In this article we are going to get to the bottom of what happens when detergents enter your washing machine.

Surfactants: Laundry Detergent's Cleaning Power

All laundry detergent ingredients have a job to do, but the one group that's really crucial to getting your clothes clean are surfactants. The word surfactant stems from the combination of words "surface-active agents." Surface-active agents get their name from their unique chemical structure, which allows them to interact with two different types of surfaces, such as oil and water. The tail of a surfactant molecule is hydrophobic, or not attracted to water. What the hydrophobic end is attracted to is grease and dirt. The head of the surfactant molecule, on the other hand, is hydrophilic -- it's attracted to water [source: Silberberg].

So when a greasy piece of clothing is immersed in water with detergents containing surfactant, the tail of the surfactant molecules attach to the grease, and the head end of the molecule is attracted to the water. When the washing machine agitates the clothes, the molecules form tiny spheres, which stay suspended in the water and are rinsed away when the water is drained. Therefore, the prime benefit of surfactants is their ability to draw grime out of clothing while making sure it doesn't return to the fabrics.

Essentially, there are four main types of surfactants, with the first three used the most in laundry detergents, and their actions depend on their interactions with ions. Ions are charged particles due to the gain or loss of electrons. Ions can be positive such as calcium, Ca2+, or negative such as chloride, Cl-.

* Anionic surfactants are negatively charged in solution. However, they do not work as well by themselves in hard water. This is because hard water has many positively charged ions presents such as calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+). Since anionic surfactants are negative they are attracted to the positive ions and bind, making them unable to bind to other molecules in solution.
* Nonionic surfactants have no charge. Therefore, they are not as easily impaired under hard water conditions, since they are not attracted to the positive ions.
* Cationic surfactants are positively charged in solution. They help the anionic surfactant molecules pack in at the water/dirt interface thereby allowing the anionic surfactants to pull more dirt away.
* Amphoteric or zwitterionic surfactants are both positively and negatively charged. These surfactants are very mild and are often found in gentler cleansers such as hand soaps, shampoos and cosmetics. [source: Silberberg].

Additional Components of Laundry Detergent

Although surfactants are at the heart of laundry detergent's ability to clean fabrics, other ingredients can help detergents clean better, brighten clothes or smell better. As described previously, some types of surfactants typically do not work well in hard water due to the excess positive ions present. Additives called builders can help detergents to work better under hard water conditions. Builders accomplish this feat by removing calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions in hard water by binding to them. This allows the surfactants, especially anionic surfactants, to bind to more grime, rather than the positively charged ions in the wash water. Builders also are bases, so they work to neutralize acid and can help disrupt chemical bonds. Another benefit of adding builders to laundry detergents is that manufacturers can use less surfactant, since the builders make the surfactant more efficient. Some examples of builders include sodium tripolyphosphate (STTP) and zeolites [source: EPA].

Detergents can also include components that make clothes whiter or brighter. The most common whitening agents are bleaches. Bleaches contain peroxides, which can oxidize fabrics [source: EPA]. Fluorescent whiteners and brighteners are also added to some laundry detergents because they minimize the yellowing of fabrics. These additives work by absorbing ultraviolet light and emitting back visible blue light, which can mask the yellow that may make colors appear faded and whites appear dingy.

Enzymes are naturally occurring biologic agents present in many detergents in varying concentrations. These enzymes are typically classified into the following categories and are similar to the enzymes used by your body to digest food:

Proteases: help break down proteins
Lipases: help break down fat
Amylases: help break down starches [source: Basketter]

These enzymes help break down food particles that are present on clothing by catalyzing, or speeding up, the decomposition process. A point to consider is that enzymes are biological products that can break down over time. Therefore, detergents can also contain enzyme stabilizers, which protect the enzymes and help them function.

Some other components include fragrance and coloring, which give laundry detergents their distinctive scents and appearance. Detergents sometimes contain trace amounts of dye, which is not enough to dye your actual clothing. However, on top of making your laundry detergent more visually appealing, dyes can show you when there is still detergent left on your clothes after the wash cycle.

Lastly, fillers help dilute and distribute the active ingredients to their proper dosages. Powder and liquid detergents use different fillers. The major filler in powder detergents is sodium sulphate, which provides the granular powdery texture. The primary filler in liquid detergents is water.

Powder vs. Liquid Detergents

Laundry detergent manufacturers have come a long way since the first box of Tide was produced more than 60 years ago. Currently, the two main types of laundry detergent are powders and liquids. For the most part, powder and liquid detergents share the same active ingredients except for the filler used. Additionally, powder and liquid detergents both have pros and cons, and since they have similar cleaning power, people usually choose which type to use based on personal preference.

Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of using powdered detergents:

Pro: They're generally cheaper.
Pro: The cardboard packaging is more eco-friendly.
Con: Some people think they don't dissolve as well in water. This may have been a problem with some of the first powdered detergents, but these days, most powders are designed to readily dissolve in water.
Con: Sodium sulphate can wreak havoc on septic systems.
Con: Powders contain more chemicals compared with liquids, due to the filler.

People may or may not use liquid detergents for an entirely different set of reasons:

Pro: The detergent is already pre-dissolved.
Pro: You can pre-treat stains by pouring it directly onto clothes.
Con: They're usually more expensive than powdered detergent.
Con: They have plastic packaging, which is less eco-friendly.

Environmental Considerations with Laundry Detergent

Even though detergents do a tremendous job of getting rid of the dirt and grime in our fabrics, at what cost does this come? Considering the toxicities of their chemical ingredients and carbon cost of production, it's not surprising that some people have concerns about the impacts of laundry detergents on the environment.

Their carbon footprint alone is significant by many people's standards. Carbon footprints are an indicator of the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced while making, shipping and using a product. According to the Wall Street Journal, the carbon footprint of using UK detergent brand Tesco, varies from 1.3 pounds (0.6 kilograms) to 1.9 pounds (0.9 kilograms) per load, depending on the form of the detergent that's used. To put this in perspective, it is estimated that for every mile an average car travels, 1 pound (0.5 kilograms) of CO2 is emitted. Recall that American families on average do 300 loads of laundry per year. This means that the carbon footprint of laundry detergents for one year of laundry is approximately 480 pounds (218 kilograms) per year, or about 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) per week. So, while this may not seem like a lot, especially if your car produces about 5 tons of CO2 per year, this number only reflects the laundry detergent. It does not factor in the extra energy requirements of running the washer and dryer [source: Wall Street Journal].

Now, add to that the toxic effects of the chemical components in detergents. According to the EPA, some of the major concerns about the chemical ingredients used in laundry detergents include the following:

* Toxicity to aquatic organisms and algae
* Persistence in the environment
* Eutrophication of fresh water, particularly by phosphate-based detergents (now, phosphates have been replaced by zeolites which may be alleviating this problem)
* Health problems in people, such as cancer [source: EPA]

Another concern relating to laundry detergent is that it can make the wash water acidic, and depending on where that water runs to, it could further impact the environment, having effects similar to acid rain.

Green Laundry Detergent Options

Given some of these environmental considerations about laundry detergents, there are some greener options available to today's consumer. Most detergents marketed as environmentally friendly don't include perfumes or dyes, and they're typically phosphate free, biodegradable, and they haven't been tested on animals.

One eco-conscious option is detergent designed to work well in cold water. On average, 80 to 85 percent of the total energy used washing a load of clothes goes to heating up the water [source: Sabaliunas et al.]. Washing in cold water saves energy, which can translate to savings on your household energy bills, too.

Another environmental approach is to use concentrated formulas, which cuts down on packaging and on the amount of water it takes to make the detergent. According to Proctor & Gamble spokeswoman Carol Berning, concentrated detergents require "less plastic for bottles, less corrugated cardboard for crating, and less gasoline used, because we need less trucks to move the shipments" [source: Consumer Reports]. The cold water and concentrated options that different companies manufacture may be one step to greener washing practices. However, even in these forms, the detergents still contain some potentially environmentally hazardous chemicals.

An additional green choice -- for the benefit of the environment and you wallet -- could be making your own laundry detergents. There are a variety of recipes out there, with the common ingredients of water, bar soap, borax and washing soda. Some environmental benefits of making your own laundry detergent are that they typically use fewer chemicals and additives, and they can save on packaging. However, be aware that clothing washed with homemade detergent may also require bleaching, and it may not get stains out as well as some of the commercially produced detergents.

Clearly, detergents are chemically complex products that are continually being improved upon, whether it is boosting their stain-fighting powers or making them greener.

Additional Information

Soap and detergent are substances that, when dissolved in water, possess the ability to remove dirt from surfaces such as the human skin, textiles, and other solids. When soap and water are not available for hand washing or when repeated hand washing compromises the natural skin barrier (e.g., causing scaling or fissures to develop in the skin), hand sanitizers—coming in foam, gel, or liquid form—have been recommended.

The seemingly simple process of cleaning a soiled surface is, in fact, complex and consists of the following physical-chemical steps:

* Wetting of the surface and, in the case of textiles, penetration of the fibre structure by wash liquor containing the detergent. Detergents (and other surface-active agents) increase the spreading and wetting ability of water by reducing its surface tension—that is, the affinity its molecules have for each other in preference to the molecules of the material to be washed.
* Absorption of a layer of the soap or detergent at the interfaces between the water and the surface to be washed and between the water and the soil. In the case of ionic surface-active agents (explained below), the layer formed is ionic (electrically polar) in nature.
* Dispersion of soil from the fibre or other material into the wash water. This step is facilitated by mechanical agitation and high temperature; in the case of hand soap, soil is dispersed in the foam formed by mechanical action of the hands.
* Preventing the soil from being deposited again onto the surface cleaned. The soap or detergent accomplishes this by suspending the dirt in a protective colloid, sometimes with the aid of special additives. In a great many soiled surfaces the dirt is bound to the surface by a thin film of oil or grease. The cleaning of such surfaces involves the displacement of this film by the detergent solution, which is in turn washed away by rinse waters. The oil film breaks up and separates into individual droplets under the influence of the detergent solution. Proteinic stains, such as egg, milk, and blood, are difficult to remove by detergent action alone. The proteinic stain is nonsoluble in water, adheres strongly to the fibre, and prevents the penetration of the detergent. By using proteolytic enzymes (enzymes able to break down proteins) together with detergents, the proteinic substance can be made water-soluble or at least water-permeable, permitting the detergent to act and the proteinic stain to be dispersed together with the oily dirt. The enzymes may present a toxic hazard to some persons habitually exposed.

If detached oil droplets and dirt particles did not become suspended in the detergent solution in a stable and highly dispersed condition, they would be inclined to flocculate, or coalesce into aggregates large enough to be redeposited on the cleansed surface. In the washing of fabrics and similar materials, small oil droplets or fine, deflocculated dirt particles are more easily carried through interstices in the material than are relatively large ones. The action of the detergent in maintaining the dirt in a highly dispersed condition is therefore important in preventing retention of detached dirt by the fabric.

In order to perform as detergents (surface-active agents), soaps and detergents must have certain chemical structures: their molecules must contain a hydrophobic (water-insoluble) part, such as a fatty acid or a rather long chain carbon group, such as fatty alcohols or alkylbenzene. The molecule must also contain a hydrophilic (water-soluble) group, such as ―COONa, or a sulfo group, such as ―OSO3Na or ―SO3Na (such as in fatty alcohol sulfate or alkylbenzene sulfonate), or a long ethylene oxide chain in nonionic synthetic detergents. This hydrophilic part makes the molecule soluble in water. In general, the hydrophobic part of the molecule attaches itself to the solid or fibre and onto the soil, and the hydrophilic part attaches itself to the water.

Four groups of surface-active agents are distinguished:

* Anionic detergents (including soap and the largest portion of modern synthetic detergents), which produce electrically negative colloidal ions in solution.
* Cationic detergents, which produce electrically positive ions in solution.
* Nonionic detergents, which produce electrically neutral colloidal particles in solution.
* Ampholytic, or amphoteric, detergents, which are capable of acting either as anionic or cationic detergents in solution depending on the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of the solution.

The first detergent (or surface-active agent) was soap. In a strictly chemical sense, any compound formed by the reaction of a water-insoluble fatty acid with an organic base or an alkali metal may be called a soap. Practically, however, the soap industry is concerned mainly with those water-soluble soaps that result from the interaction between fatty acids and alkali metals. In certain cases, however, the salts of fatty acids with ammonia or with triethanolamine are also used, as in shaving preparations.