Math Is Fun Forum

Kidney

Gist

Kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, about the size of a fist, located behind the abdomen, which filter blood to remove waste, excess water, and toxins, forming urine. They are essential for balancing electrolytes, regulating blood pressure, producing red blood cells, and maintaining bone health.

The kidneys are vital organs that perform seven major functions, including filtering metabolic waste (creatinine, urea) from blood, balancing electrolytes, regulating fluid levels, controlling blood pressure, regulating pH balance (acid-base), activating Vitamin D for bone health, and producing hormones like erythropoietin to manage red blood cell production.

Summary

In humans, the kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering organs that are a multilobar, multipapillary form of mammalian kidneys, usually without signs of external lobulation. They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about 12 centimetres (4+ 1/2 inches) in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder.

The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluids, fluid osmolality, acid–base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid. The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult human kidney contains around 1 million nephrons, while a mouse kidney contains only about 12,500 nephrons. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephrons. For example, they convert a precursor of vitamin D to its active form, calcitriol; and synthesize the hormones erythropoietin and renin.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been recognized as a leading public health problem worldwide. The global estimated prevalence of CKD is 13.4%, and patients with kidney failure needing renal replacement therapy are estimated between 5 and 7 million. Procedures used in the management of kidney disease include chemical and microscopic examination of the urine (urinalysis), measurement of kidney function by calculating the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) using the serum creatinine; and kidney biopsy and CT scan to evaluate for abnormal anatomy. Dialysis and kidney transplantation are used to treat kidney failure; one (or both sequentially) of these are almost always used when renal function drops below 15%. Nephrectomy is frequently used to cure renal cell carcinoma.

Renal physiology is the study of kidney function. Nephrology is the medical specialty which addresses diseases of kidney function: these include CKD, nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, acute kidney injury, and pyelonephritis. Urology addresses diseases of kidney (and urinary tract) anatomy: these include cancer, renal cysts, kidney stones and ureteral stones, and urinary tract obstruction.

The word "renal" is an adjective meaning "relating to the kidneys", and its roots are French or late Latin. Whereas according to some opinions, "renal" should be replaced with "kidney" in scientific writings such as "kidney artery", other experts have advocated preserving the use of "renal" as appropriate including in "renal artery".

Details

Your kidneys are organs that filter your blood. They remove waste and balance your body’s fluids, among other tasks. Most people have one kidney on either side of their spines (in their lower back). Common kidney conditions include kidney disease, kidney infections and kidney cysts.

Overview:

What is a kidney?

The kidneys are two fist-sized organs that filter your blood. Your kidneys are part of your urinary system.

Your kidneys filter about 200 quarts of fluid every day — enough to fill a large bathtub. During this process, your kidneys remove waste, which leaves your body as urine (pee). Most people pee about 2 quarts daily. Your body reuses the other 198 quarts of fluid.

Each kidney also helps balance your body’s fluids (mostly water) and electrolytes. Electrolytes are essential minerals that include sodium and potassium.

Function:

What do kidneys do?

Your kidneys have many important functions. They clean toxins and waste out of your blood. Common waste products include nitrogen waste (urea), muscle waste (creatinine) and acids. They help your body remove these substances. Your kidneys filter about half a cup of blood every minute.

In the process:

1. Blood flows into your kidneys through a large blood vessel called the renal artery.
2. Tiny blood vessels in your kidney filter the blood.
3. The filtered blood returns to your bloodstream through a large blood vessel called the renal vein.
4. Pee travels through tubes of muscle called ureters (yer-it-ters) to your bladder.
5. Your bladder stores pee until you release it through urination (peeing).

The kidneys also:

* Control the acid-base balance (pH balance) of your blood
* Make sugar (glucose) if your blood doesn’t have enough
* Make a protein called renin that increases blood pressure
* Produce the hormones calcitriol and erythropoietin. Calcitriol is a form of vitamin D that helps your body absorb calcium. Erythropoietin helps your body make red blood cells.

How do my kidneys filter blood?

Each kidney contains more than a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of:

* Glomeruli: These are groups of tiny blood vessels that perform the first stage of filtering your blood (glomerular filtration). They then pass filtered substances to the renal tubules.
* Renal tubules: These tiny tubes reabsorb and return water, nutrients and minerals your body needs. The tubules remove waste, including excess acid and fluids. Waste goes through your kidneys’ collecting chambers and leaves your body as pee.

Anatomy:

Where are your they located?

Your kidneys sit just below your rib cage and in your lower back. Typically, one kidney sits on either side of your spine. Your kidneys are between your intestines and diaphragm. A ureter connects each kidney to your bladder.

What are the parts of your kidney?

Your kidneys are highly complex organs with many parts. The main parts of your kidney anatomy include:

* Kidney (renal) capsule: This has three layers of connective tissue or fat that cover your kidneys. It protects your kidneys from injury, makes them more stable and connects your kidneys to nearby tissues.
* Renal artery: This large blood vessel controls blood flow into your kidneys. For most people at rest, the renal arteries pump a little over 5 cups (1.2 liters) of blood to your kidneys every minute.
* Renal cortex: This is your kidney’s outer layer, where the nephrons (blood-filtering units) begin. The renal cortex also creates the hormone erythropoietin.
* Renal medulla: This is the inner part of your kidney. It contains most of the nephrons with their glomeruli and renal tubules. The renal tubules carry urine to the renal pelvis.
* Renal papilla: These pyramid-shaped structures transfer urine to the ureters. Dehydration and certain medications may damage your renal papilla.
* Renal pelvis: This funnel-shaped structure collects urine and passes it down two ureters. Urine travels from the ureters to the bladder, which stores it.
* Renal vein: This vein is the main blood vessel that carries filtered blood out of your kidneys and back to your heart. Each of your kidneys has a renal vein.

What does a kidney look like?

Your kidneys are reddish-brown. They have a shape like a kidney bean. Each kidney is about 4 or 5 inches long, about the size of a fist.

The weight of your kidneys varies. It depends on your height, weight, age and body mass index (BMI). Your kidneys may weigh as much as one to five tennis balls.

An adrenal gland sits on top of each kidney. It produces hormones, including cortisol, which helps your body respond to stress.

Conditions and Disorders:

What are the common conditions and disorders that affect your kidneys?

Common diseases that impact your kidneys include:

* Chronic kidney disease (CKD): This may lessen your kidney function. Diabetes or high blood pressure usually causes CKD.
* Kidney cancer: Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type.
* Kidney failure (renal failure): This may be acute (worsen suddenly) or chronic (long-term). End-stage renal disease is a complete loss of kidney function.
* Kidney infection: This can occur if bacteria enter your kidneys by traveling up your ureters. These infections cause sudden symptoms.
* Kidney stones: Crystals can form in your urine and join together to form a stone, which may block urine flow.
* Kidney (renal) cysts: Fluid-filled sacs can grow on your kidneys. They may be benign or malignant.
* Polycystic kidney disease (PKD): This genetic condition causes cysts to form on your kidneys. It may lead to high blood pressure and kidney failure.

Countless other disorders can affect your kidneys. Some of these conditions include:

* Acidosis: Excess acid collects, and your kidneys don’t get rid of it. This may cause many health problems and can be life-threatening.
* Acute or interstitial nephritis: Your kidneys become inflamed, sometimes from certain antibiotics. This may lead to kidney failure.
* Azotemia: Nitrogen waste builds up in your blood and your kidneys don’t get rid of it. Without treatment, azotemia may be fatal.
* Hydronephrosis: Blockage of your urinary system causes urine to back up in your kidneys. Without treatment, hydronephrosis may result in kidney failure.
* Diabetes-related nephropathy or hypertensive nephropathy: Unmanaged diabetes or chronically high blood pressure causes kidney damage.
* Glomerular diseases: These cause inflammation or damage to your glomeruli. Glomerular diseases may cause kidney failure.
* Minimal change disease and nephrotic syndrome: These cause your kidneys to release excess protein in your pee. Over time, this can damage your kidneys.
* Papillary necrosis: Chunks of kidney tissue die in the medulla and papilla. The tissue can break off and clog your kidneys, leading to kidney failure.
* Proteinuria: This is a high level of protein in your pee. It can be a sign of kidney damage.
* Uremia: Your kidneys don’t clear toxins that normally leave your body through your pee. They end up in your bloodstream. Without treatment, uremia can be fatal.

Who is at the greatest risk of problems?

People with diabetes or high blood pressure have the highest risk of kidney problems. Accidents or trauma can also harm your kidneys, like car accidents or sports injuries.

Signs and symptoms of a problem

Most kidney problems don’t have signs in their early stages. As kidney damage progresses, you may notice:

* Cramping muscles: Electrolyte imbalances cause your muscles to stiffen.
* Dark urine or urine with blood in it: Damage to your kidneys’ filters lets blood cells leak into your urine.
* Foamy urine: Bubbles in your pee can signal excess protein.
* Itchy, dry skin: An imbalance of minerals and nutrients in your blood leads to itchy skin.
* More frequent urination: Problems filtering waste cause you to pee more often.
* Puffy eyes or swollen ankles and feet: Reduced kidney function can cause your body to hold onto protein and sodium, resulting in swelling.
* Sleep problems, fatigue and lack of appetite: If toxins build up in your blood, your sleep, appetite and energy levels may be off.
* Stomach pain or vomiting.

What are common tests to check the health of my kidneys?

Healthcare providers use several tests to measure kidney function and diagnose kidney problems. Your provider may recommend:

* Urinalysis: A urinalysis analyzes your pee. It measures certain substances, like protein or blood.
* Blood tests: These can show how well your glomeruli filter your blood.
* Kidney biopsy: Your healthcare provider removes a small amount of your kidney tissue to examine it under a microscope.
* Ureteroscopy: Your provider passes a tube (endoscope) through your urethra into your bladder and ureters to look for anything unusual.
* Advanced imaging: An X-ray, CT scan, MRI, ultrasound or nuclear medicine image can show kidney anomalies or blockages.

Care:

Simple tips to keep your kidneys healthy

It’s important to have regular checkups and blood and urine tests to measure your kidneys’ health. You can reduce your risk of developing a kidney problem by:

* Avoiding tobacco products
* Cutting out excess salt, which can affect the balance of minerals in your blood
* Drinking water
* Increasing daily physical activity, which can reduce high blood pressure
* Limiting your use of NSAIDs, which can cause kidney damage if you take them too often (Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs)
* Maintaining a weight that’s healthy for you
* Monitoring your blood pressure levels
* Watching your blood sugar levels if you have diabetes

You should have your kidney function regularly tested if you have:

* A family history of kidney disease
* Diabetes
* Heart disease
* High blood pressure
* Obesity or overweight
* Regular use of certain medications, like blood pressure medicine.

Additional Information

Kidney, in vertebrates and some invertebrates, is an organ that maintains water balance and expels metabolic wastes. Primitive and embryonic kidneys consist of two series of specialized tubules that empty into two collecting ducts, the Wolffian ducts (see Wolffian duct). The more advanced kidney (metanephros) of adult reptiles, birds, and mammals is a paired compact organ whose functional units, called nephrons, filter initial urine from the blood, reabsorb water and nutrients, and secrete wastes, producing the final urine, which is expelled.

Reptilian and avian kidneys are made up of many tiny lobules that, in birds, are combined into three or more lobes. Collecting tubules from each lobule empty into a separate branch of the ureter. Reptiles have relatively few nephrons (from 3,000 to 30,000 in lizards), while birds have a great number (around 200,000 in a fowl, twice as many as in a mammal of comparable size).

Mammalian kidneys have a somewhat granular outer section (the cortex), containing the glomeruli and convoluted tubules, and a smooth, somewhat striated inner section (the medulla), containing the loops of Henle and the collecting tubules. As the ureter enters the kidney it enlarges into a cavity, the renal pelvis; urine passes into this pelvis from the collecting tubules. Nephrons are numerous (20,000 in a mouse).

In humans the kidneys are about 10 centimetres long and are located beneath the diaphragm and behind the peritoneum. Each kidney contains 1,000,000–1,250,000 nephrons that filter the entire five-quart water content of the blood every 45 minutes—an equivalent of 160 quarts a day. Of this, only 1 1/2 quarts are excreted; the remainder is reabsorbed by the nephrons.

Damaged kidneys secrete an enzyme called renin that stimulates constriction of the blood vessels. When the damage has been caused initially by high blood pressure, the increase in pressure from the constricted vessels causes more kidney damage.

Q: What do you get when you cross oatmeal & ducks?
A: Quacker oatmeal!
* * *
Q: How did Reese eat her oatmeal?
A: Witherspoon.
* * *
Q: Why did the boy give a girl an oatmeal cookie?
A: To make a sweet first impression.
* * *
Q: What did the kid say when his mother poured oatmeal on him?
A: How can you be so gruel?
* * *
Q: Why doesn't Jay-Z eat oatmeal?
A: Cause He's got 99 problems but fiber ain't one.
* * *

Nitrous Oxide

Gist

Nitrous oxide (N2O), commonly known as "laughing gas," is a colorless, slightly sweet-smelling non-flammable gas used extensively in medicine for sedation and pain relief, in dentistry, and in food production (whipped cream chargers). It is a powerful greenhouse gas and ozone-depleting substance.

Nitrous oxide has a pain-relieving and numbing effect, which is why it can be used as an anesthetic. It is also used in the chemicals industry and in farming. Nitrous oxide is absorbed into the blood through the lungs. It then enters the brain and nerve tissue through the bloodstream.

Summary

Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide or dinitrogen monoxide), commonly known as laughing gas or nitrous, among others, is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula N2O. At room temperature, it is a colourless non-flammable gas, and has a slightly sweet scent and taste. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidiser similar to molecular oxygen.

Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry, for its anaesthetic and pain-reducing effects, and it is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Its colloquial name, "laughing gas", coined by Humphry Davy, describes the euphoric effects upon inhaling it, which cause it to be used as a recreational drug inducing a brief "high". When abused chronically, it may cause neurological damage through inactivation of vitamin B12. It is also used as an oxidiser in rocket propellants and motor racing fuels, and as a frothing gas for whipped cream.

Nitrous oxide is also an atmospheric pollutant, with a concentration of 333 parts per billion (ppb) in 2020, increasing at 1 ppb annually. It is a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone, with an impact comparable to that of CFCs. About 40% of human-caused emissions are from agriculture, as nitrogen fertilisers are digested into nitrous oxide by soil micro-organisms. As the third most important greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide substantially contributes to global warming. Reduction of emissions is an important goal in the politics of climate change.

Details

Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) is a sedative healthcare providers use to keep you comfortable during procedures. It’s a colorless, faintly sweet-smelling gas that you breathe in through a nosepiece. Unlike other sedation options, you can drive shortly after receiving nitrous oxide.

Overview:

What is nitrous oxide (laughing gas)?

Nitrous oxide (N20) — commonly known as laughing gas — is a type of short-acting sedative. It’s a colorless, slightly sweet-smelling gas that you breathe in through a mask or nosepiece.

Physicians and dentists have been using nitrous oxide since the mid-19th century — and it’s still one of the most common inhaled sedatives used today. It’s fast-acting and it wears off quickly, making it an ideal sedation option for short or minor procedures.

What does laughing gas do?

Nitrous oxide slows down your nervous system and induces a sense of calm and euphoria. It reduces anxiety and helps you stay comfortable during medical or dental procedures. It doesn’t fully put you to sleep, so you’ll still be able to respond to your provider’s questions or instructions.

Despite its name, laughing gas might not make you laugh. (But then again, it could.) Everyone responds a little differently.

Nitrous oxide takes effect quickly. Within three to five minutes, you might feel:

* Calm.
* Relaxed.
* Happy.
* Giggly.
* Mildly euphoric.
* Light-headed.
* Tingling in your arms and legs.
* Heaviness, like you’re sinking deeper into the exam chair or table.

Who shouldn’t use nitrous oxide sedation?

Laughing gas is a safe medical and dental sedation option for most people, from children to adults. But it might not be right for kids under the age of 2 and those with:

* Certain respiratory conditions, like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
* Stuffy nose (nasal congestion).
* Vitamin B12 deficiency.
* Severe psychiatric conditions.

Ask your healthcare provider whether you’re a candidate for nitrous oxide sedation.

Treatment Details:

What should I expect if I’m getting laughing gas?

Your healthcare provider will talk with you and answer any questions before your procedure. They’ll ask you to sign a consent form so you can receive nitrous oxide.

When it’s time for your procedure, your provider will:

* Place a mask over your nose and mouth. (If you’re getting laughing gas at your dentist’s office, they’ll give you a smaller mask that only covers your nose.)
* Open a tank valve to allow nitrous oxide and oxygen to flow into your mask. (They’ll start with a very low dose to see how you respond.)
* Adjust the dosage until you feel the desired effects.
* Do your procedure. (In many cases, your provider will also give you local anesthesia before beginning. This is because nitrous oxide reduces pain but won’t totally eliminate it. So, it’s common to combine it with other forms of anesthesia.)
* Stop the flow of laughing gas once your procedure is over.
* Ask you to breathe in pure oxygen through your mask until you feel alert again.
* Remove the mask from your face.
* Monitor you for a few minutes before releasing you to go home.

It’s normal to feel a little nervous if you’ve never had laughing gas before. The good news is that you’ll be able to tell your provider if you develop undesirable side effects. If you start to feel dizzy or nauseous, your provider can simply adjust the dosage until it feels comfortable to you.

How long does laughing gas last?

The effects of nitrous oxide last until your provider turns off the gas flow. Once this happens, it takes about 5 to 10 minutes for the sedative to leave your system and for your headspace to return to normal. Due to the short-acting nature of nitrous oxide, you can drive shortly after your procedure.

Risks / Benefits:

What are the benefits of nitrous oxide?

The most notable advantage of laughing gas is that it relieves anxiety. People with medical- or dental-related fears often avoid healthcare visits and put off necessary procedures. Nitrous oxide makes it possible for people to get the care they need and deserve.

Nitrous oxide is also:

* Fast-acting (the effects kick in quickly).
* Short-acting. (Once your provider turns off the gas flow, you’ll start feeling like your usual self in a matter of minutes. This can be helpful if you find the effects of nitrous oxide unpleasant.)
* Easy to administer and doesn’t require needles.
* Safe and effective when given in a healthcare setting.

What are the possible complications of nitrous oxide in a dental or medical setting?

Laughing gas doesn’t cause any long-term complications when given under the care of a healthcare provider. But frequent nitrous oxide exposure (for multiple-phase dental treatment, for instance) can result in vitamin B12 deficiency. If you’re planning several appointments with laughing gas, ask your provider whether you should take a vitamin B12 supplement.

Some people may develop temporary nitrous oxide side effects like:

* Headaches.
* Nausea and vomiting.
* Agitation.

These side effects go away once the nitrous oxide leaves your system.

What are the risks of using nitrous oxide recreationally?

Some people use nitrous oxide recreationally to achieve a momentary euphoric high. But inhaling laughing gas more often than you need it can cause serious and potentially life-threatening health complications like:

* Low blood pressure (hypotension).
* Low oxygen (hypoxia).
* Fainting.
* Heart attack.
* Nerve damage.

People who use laughing gas recreationally have an increased risk of these long-term health conditions:

* Depression.
* Psychosis.
* Memory loss.
* Muscle spasms.
* Tinnitus (ringing in your ears).
* Numbness, especially in your hands and feet.
* Weakened immune system.
* Birth defects (if used during pregnancy).

Additional Information

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is any one of several oxides of nitrogen, a colourless gas with pleasant, sweetish odour and taste, which when inhaled produces insensibility to pain preceded by mild hysteria, sometimes laughter. (Because inhalation of small amounts provides a brief euphoric effect and nitrous oxide is not illegal to possess, the substance has been used as a recreational drug.) Nitrous oxide was discovered by the English chemist Joseph Priestley in 1772; another English chemist, Humphry Davy, later named it and showed its physiological effect. A principal use of nitrous oxide is as an anesthetic in surgical operations of short duration; prolonged inhalation causes death. The gas is also used as a propellant in food aerosols. In automobile racing, nitrous oxide is injected into an engine’s air intake; the extra oxygen allows the engine to burn more fuel per stroke. It is prepared by the action of zinc on dilute nitric acid, by the action of hydroxylamine hydrochloride (NH2OH·HCl) on sodium nitrite (NaNO2), and, most commonly, by the decomposition of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).

Malaria

Gist

Malaria is a severe, often fatal, disease caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, primarily in tropical regions. Symptoms include high fever, shivering chills, headache, and fatigue. It is preventable and curable, but requires prompt diagnosis and treatment.

Malaria is caused by single-celled Plasmodium parasites, which are transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. When an infected mosquito bites a person, the parasites enter the bloodstream, travel to the liver to mature, and subsequently infect red blood cells, causing symptoms.

Summary

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease which is transmitted by the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes. Human malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches; in severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected Anopheles mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. Those who survive an infection develop partial immunity, being susceptible to reinfection although with milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.

Malaria is caused by single-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium, generally spread through the bites of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into the blood. The parasites initially reproduce and mature in the liver without causing symptoms. After a few days the mature parasites spread into the bloodstream, where they infect and destroy red blood cells, causing the symptoms of infection. Five species of Plasmodium commonly infect humans. The three species associated with more severe cases are P. falciparum (which is responsible for the vast majority of malaria deaths), P. vivax, and P. knowlesi (a simian malaria that spills over into thousands of people a year). P. ovale and P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria. Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films, or with antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests. Methods that use the polymerase chain reaction to detect the parasite's DNA have been developed, but they are not widely used in areas where malaria is common, due to their cost and complexity.

The risk of disease can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites through the use of mosquito nets and insect repellents or with mosquito-control measures such as spraying insecticides and draining standing water. Several prophylactic medications are available to prevent malaria in areas where the disease is common. As of 2023, two malaria vaccines have been endorsed by the World Health Organization. Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications; for example, chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum has spread to most malaria-prone areas, and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of Southeast Asia. Because of this, drug treatment for malaria infection should be tailored to best fit the Plasmodium species involved and the geographical location where the infection was acquired.

The disease is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions that exist in a broad band around the equator. This includes much of sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In 2023, some 263 million cases of malaria worldwide resulted in an estimated 597,000 deaths. Around 95% of the cases and deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty and has a significant negative effect on economic development; in Africa, it is estimated to result in economic losses (estimated at US$12 billion a year in 2005) due to increased healthcare costs, lost ability to work, and adverse effects on tourism.

Details

Malaria is a potentially life-threatening illness caused by parasites. You get it through the bite of an infected mosquito. It’s most common in parts of the world that are hot and humid, like Africa and parts of Asia. It can cause flu-like symptoms that can progress to severe illness if not treated.

What Is Malaria?

Malaria is a disease you get from being bitten by a mosquito. Some mosquitoes carry tiny parasites. They can infect you with the parasites when they bite you. Malaria can cause severe illness and death if left untreated. Kids under 5 are more likely to get life-threatening illness. Malaria is most common in tropical areas where it’s hot and humid. Most cases happen in Africa. It’s rare in the U.S. See a healthcare provider right away if you live in or have traveled to an area where malaria spreads and you have symptoms. This is true even if you’ve taken medications to prevent malaria during your trip.

Symptoms and Causes:

Symptoms of malaria

Symptoms of malaria can be mild to severe. They often start as flu-like symptoms and can get worse. They include:

* Fever
* Chills
* Headache
* Muscle aches
* Fatigue
* Difficulty breathing
* Diarrhea, nausea or vomiting
* Seizures
* Yellowing of your skin or whites of your eyes (jaundice)
* Dark or bloody pee

Malaria symptoms usually appear several days to a month after you’re infected. Some people don’t feel sick for a year or longer after the mosquito bite.

Malaria causes

Plasmodium parasites cause malaria. There are five types that can infect humans. Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) and Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax) are the most common. P. falciparum often causes severe illness.

How do you get malaria?

A mosquito gets the parasitic infection when it bites someone who’s infected. The mosquito then bites you and spreads the infection. The parasite multiplies in your liver and spreads to your bloodstream. There, it can spread to other people if a mosquito bites you. Rarely, malaria can also spread through:

* Pregnancy or childbirth (vertical transmission)
* Blood transfusions
* Organ donations
* Sharing needles

Risk factors

You’re at a higher risk of getting malaria if you live in or travel to areas where it spreads, like parts of Africa. You’re at a higher risk of serious illness and death if you:

* Are younger than 5
* Are pregnant
* Have a weakened immune system
* Don’t have access to healthcare

What countries have malaria?

Malaria is most common in areas with warm temperatures and high humidity, including:

* Africa
* Central and South America
* Dominican Republic, Haiti and other areas in the Caribbean
* Islands in the Central and South Pacific Ocean (Oceania)
* South and Southeast Asia

Complications of malaria

If left untreated, malaria can cause severe complications. These include:

* Blocked blood vessels in your brain (cerebral malaria)
* Coma
* Organ failure

These complications can be fatal.

Diagnosis and Tests:

How doctors diagnose malaria

Healthcare providers test a sample of your blood to diagnose malaria. They’ll look for Plasmodium parasites and identify what type of infection you have. Your provider will use this information to determine the right treatment. It’s important to tell your provider if you’ve traveled within the past year so they know to test for malaria.

Management and Treatment:

How is malaria treated?

Healthcare providers treat malaria with medications that kill the parasite (antimalarial medications). The type of antimalarial medication your provider treats you with depends on:

* Where you were infected — you’re more likely to get drug-resistant infections in certain parts of the world
* The type of Plasmodium causing the infection
* How sick you are
* Whether you’re pregnant or breastfeeding
* Your age

Medications can cure malaria, but it’s important to start treating it as soon as possible.

Antimalarial drugs

Antimalarial medications kill the Plasmodium parasites. You might receive them in an IV or take them by mouth. They include:

* Artemether-lumefantrine
* Atovaquone-proguanil
* Chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine
* Doxycycline, tetracycline or clindamycin
* Mefloquine
* Quinine
* Primaquine
* Tafenoquine

You might receive one or a combination of these. Take all medications as prescribed, even if you start to feel better.

When should I see my healthcare provider?

See a healthcare provider right away if you’ve traveled to or live in a country where malaria is common and you have symptoms. Early diagnosis gives you the best chance for a full recovery.

Outlook / Prognosis:

What can I expect if I have malaria?

Antimalarial medications can cure malaria, especially if started early. You might need to stay at the hospital, at least to start your treatment. Treatment can last for about two weeks, but you might start feeling better in a few days. Let your provider know if you aren’t feeling better or if your symptoms get worse. Sometimes, even after treatment, malaria infections can come back (recur). This happens when the parasite isn’t completely killed by treatment. It can stay in your body without causing symptoms. You can start having symptoms again years after your initial infection and treatment. Medications like primaquine and tafenoquine make this less likely to happen. You can get malaria again, even if you’ve had it before.

Prevention:

Can you prevent malaria?

There are a few ways to reduce your risk of getting and spreading malaria:

* Preventive medications: If you’re traveling to an area where malaria is common, your healthcare provider might prescribe antimalarial medications for you to take before, during and after your stay. If you get malaria while on an antimalarial drug, providers will give you a different medication to treat it.
* Mosquito bite prevention: Wear bug spray with DEET, cover as much skin as possible with clothing, sleep under mosquito netting and take other precautions to avoid getting bitten.
* Vaccination: Public health officials recommend vaccinating against malaria for children who live in areas where infections are common. They’re not currently recommended for travelers.

Additional Information:

Overview

Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. The parasite is spread to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. People who have malaria usually feel very sick with a high fever and shaking chills.

While the disease is uncommon in temperate climates, malaria is still common in tropical and subtropical countries. Each year nearly 290 million people are infected with malaria, and more than 400,000 people die of the disease.

To reduce malaria infections, world health programs distribute preventive drugs and insecticide-treated bed nets to protect people from mosquito bites. The World Health Organization has recommended a malaria vaccine for use in children who live in countries with high numbers of malaria cases.

Protective clothing, bed nets and insecticides can protect you while traveling. You also can take preventive medicine before, during and after a trip to a high-risk area. Many malaria parasites have developed resistance to common drugs used to treat the disease.

Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of malaria may include:

* Fever
* Chills
* General feeling of discomfort
* Headache
* Nausea and vomiting
* Diarrhea
* Abdominal pain
* Muscle or joint pain
* Fatigue
* Rapid breathing
* Rapid heart rate
* Cough

Some people who have malaria experience cycles of malaria "attacks." An attack usually starts with shivering and chills, followed by a high fever, followed by sweating and a return to normal temperature.

Malaria signs and symptoms typically begin within a few weeks after being bitten by an infected mosquito. However, some types of malaria parasites can lie dormant in your body for up to a year.

When to see a doctor

Talk to your doctor if you experience a fever while living in or after traveling to a high-risk malaria region. If you have severe symptoms, seek emergency medical attention.

Complications

Malaria can be fatal, particularly when caused by the plasmodium species common in Africa. The World Health Organization estimates that about 94% of all malaria deaths occur in Africa — most commonly in children under the age of 5.

Malaria deaths are usually related to one or more serious complications, including:

* Cerebral malaria. If parasite-filled blood cells block small blood vessels to your brain (cerebral malaria), swelling of your brain or brain damage may occur. Cerebral malaria may cause seizures and coma.
* Breathing problems. Accumulated fluid in your lungs (pulmonary edema) can make it difficult to breathe.
* Organ failure. Malaria can damage the kidneys or liver or cause the spleen to rupture. Any of these conditions can be life-threatening.
* Anemia. Malaria may result in not having enough red blood cells for an adequate supply of oxygen to your body's tissues (anemia).
* Low blood sugar. Severe forms of malaria can cause low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), as can quinine — a common medication used to combat malaria. Very low blood sugar can result in coma or death.

Malaria may recur

Some varieties of the malaria parasite, which typically cause milder forms of the disease, can persist for years and cause relapses.

Prevention

If you live in or are traveling to an area where malaria is common, take steps to avoid mosquito bites. Mosquitoes are most active between dusk and dawn. To protect yourself from mosquito bites, you should:

* Cover your skin. Wear pants and long-sleeved shirts. Tuck in your shirt, and tuck pant legs into socks.
* Apply insect repellent to skin. Use an insect repellent registered with the Environmental Protection Agency on any exposed skin. These include repellents that contain DEET, picaridin, IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE), para-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD) or 2-undecanone. Do not use a spray directly on your face. Do not use products with oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE) or p-Menthane-3,8-diol (PMD) on children under age 3.
* Apply repellent to clothing. Sprays containing permethrin are safe to apply to clothing.
* Sleep under a net. Bed nets, particularly those treated with insecticides, such as permethrin, help prevent mosquito bites while you are sleeping.

Preventive medicine

If you'll be traveling to a location where malaria is common, talk to your doctor a few months ahead of time about whether you should take drugs before, during and after your trip to help protect you from malaria parasites.

In general, the drugs taken to prevent malaria are the same drugs used to treat the disease. What drug you take depends on where and how long you are traveling and your own health.

Vaccine

The World Health Organization has recommended a malaria vaccine for use in children who live in countries with high numbers of malaria cases.

Researchers are continuing to develop and study malaria vaccines to prevent infection.

Comfort Quotes - II

1. There is nothing like staying at home for real comfort. - Jane Austen

2. The lust for comfort, that stealthy thing that enters the house a guest, and then becomes a host, and then a master. - Khalil Gibran

3. Prosperity is not without many fears and distastes; adversity not without many comforts and hopes. - Francis Bacon

4. Life is made up, not of great sacrifices or duties, but of little things, in which smiles and kindness, and small obligations given habitually, are what preserve the heart and secure comfort. - Humphry Davy

5. In poverty and other misfortunes of life, true friends are a sure refuge. The young they keep out of mischief; to the old they are a comfort and aid in their weakness, and those in the prime of life they incite to noble deeds. - Aristotle

6. A scholar who cherishes the love of comfort is not fit to be deemed a scholar. - Lao Tzu

7. Physical comforts cannot subdue mental suffering, and if we look closely, we can see that those who have many possessions are not necessarily happy. In fact, being wealthy often brings even more anxiety. - Dalai Lama

8. If a nation values anything more than freedom, it will lose its freedom, and the irony of it is that if it is comfort or money that it values more, it will lose that too. - W. Somerset Maugham.